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SOVIET VOROSHILOV ACADEMY LECTURES
FRONTAND ARMY OPERATIONS

 

CHAPTER II-6

 

I. AIMS AND MISSIONS OF AIR DEFENSE IN DEFENSIVE OPERATIONS

The aims of air defense in front defensive operations are the following:
- timely detection of the aerial enemy;
- protecting and covering main forces and important rear service targets;
- providing air defense cover for troops during counterblows (counterstrikes) and during counterpreparatory fire.

 
 

Air Defense Missions in Defense

Air defense missions in defense are the following:
- covering main groupings of forces, rocket and artillery troops, rear service targets, and airfields against enemy air strikes during preparation and conduct of defensive operations;
- detecting the aerial enemy an warning air defense about him;
- fighting enemy air assault forces in the air;
- covering troops during the conduct of counterpreparatory fire and during the conduct of counterblows (counterstrikes);
- destroying enemy pilotless aircraft (drones) and manned aircraft.

 
 

II. SOME SPECIFICS OF AIR DEFENSE IN DEFENSIVE OPERATIONS

 
 

The fire system of the Front air defense

This system includes the areas of organized and controled combat action (fireing) of air defense rockets and artillery organic to the Front and armies, which are organized in a unified plan and coordinated with the air defense fire system of divisions in accord with the concept of the operaiton, and the form and directions of action of the air enemy vozduchnii protivnik.

During the organization of the combat action of air defense rocket andartillery formations, units and sub-units to cover the Front rear service troops and installations, (when thefiresystem is being established) the grouping of air defesnse means is established in conformity with the basic principles of concentrating the main forces of the air defense to cover the main grouping of the troops and critical establishments of the Front. The grouping of Front's air defense troops is divided into two parts.
----- - one group is tasked to provide air defense for the first echelon
----- - the second group covers the rear installations in the depth

The air defense grouping assigned to cover the first echelon troops are required to:

----- - inflict heavy losses on theair enemy along their directions ofapproach to the troops at all altitudes
----- - be prepared and capable to repel those enemy air attacks which are conducted with a high density
----- - to conduct the struggle against both tactical aircraft and enemy army aviation
----- - to have the capability to become fully combat ready in a very short time as the air enemy's flight is detected

The grouping of air defense rocket and artillery units should support the creation of multi-layered destruction areas to destroy enemy air targets in important areas. The outer line of the destruction area falls at a distance so that the air enemy is destroyed before it reaches its targets.

The S-75 air defense rocket regiment of the Front which are assigned to reenforce the air defense cover of first echelon troops deploy 10 - 20 km. from the forward line of troops on one or two lines of air defense battalions. They cover the troops' groupings and their position areas. The depth of the combat formation of the air defvcense rocket regiment is up to 5 km if deployed in battalion lines and 10 - 30 km if it deploys in grouping form. The minimum distance between air defense rocket battalions should be such as to avoid mutual interference and therefore for example 10 km. The maximum distance should be limited to the capability of interaction and covering of the troops in the destruction area and the need for reliable command and control therefore it couldbe up to 30 km.

The command posts of the regiment is deployed in a favorable position suitable for thecomand and control and normally in the center. Its maximum distance from the battalions sould not be more than 20 km. The technical battalion is deployed in one or two technical positiohns inthe rear of the regiment positions at a distance of up to 30 km from the farthest battalion.

The combat formation used by a S-75 air defense rocket regiment which is covering the operational rear services installations and a S-75 rocket regiment covering the second echelon army is normally the grouping form. The grouping is established in such a way that all of the air defense rockets could destroy enemy air before they reach their targets. this can be achieved when the distance between them 10 to 30 km. The distance of the battalions from the installations should not be less than 5 km so that both are not destroyed by the same medium nuclear rounds.

The Front S-125 air defense rocket regiment is primairly employed to cover air fields of the nuclear armed aircraft. Each airfield is allocated two rocket battalions.

The air defense artillery divisions and regiments organic to the Front are assigned to cover important targets of the Front and when necessary they are assigend to reenforce the air defense of combined arms and tank armies.

The separate air defense regiment organic or attached to the armies are employed to cover army troops and installations.

The layout of air defense fire system should be mobile and its relocation during the operation must be planned. The relocation should be conducted in accord with the accomplishment of the mission by the troops and the time of movement of covered targets. The relocation is conducted successively or simultqaneoulsly. Theform of relocation during the operation can be reajusted by the chief of Front air defense as required by thesituation.

In order to provide for the firmness of air defense fire system and its command and control the positions of air defense means and the command posts are prepared in terms of engineer works and the main positions alternative positions and dummy positions are establihsed ,. Thecombat formation of air derfense troops are widely dispersed. The material reserves are dumped and concealed (camouflagued).



Organization of cover by fighter aircraft

The combat employment of fighter aircraft is planned jointly by the air army commander and the cheif of Front air defense on the basis of thedecision of the Front commander.
In this process the method of repelling massive strikes of the air enemy and particularly its initial strike are determined. Depending on the characteristics of the enemy strike and those of the grouping of friendly fighter aircraft, the interception line during aircraft commitment to combat, the composition of different echelons of aircraft, the interception line of the air enemy from air patrol positions, and the interception line from airfields; on each likely direction of enemy flight are determined and the number and areas of air patrols, the degree of combat readiness, and the method of maneuver are specified.

The first line of commitment of fighter aircraft into combat from air patrol positions can be forward of the front line. The subsequent lines of commitment to combat are specified behind the first line at a distance to provide a sufficient area to fight against the enemy air until it reaches the fire area of air defense means. If such conditions cannot be provided the action of fighter aircraft in the area of the air defense rockets with their interaction or between the areas of action of the air defense rockets or in the rear of these areas is provided for.

The combat action of fighter aircraft in the course of the operation is organized by specifying the combat action areas for fighter aviation divisions. the number of such areas depends on the number of fighter aviation divisions in the Front air army.



Organization of troop control and interaction (coordination).

The control of air defense troops and means in Front offensive operations is conducted to exercise constant control over theaction of the troops and to direct their efforts in support of the accomplishment of assigned air defense missions in the offensive operation.

For the troop control of air defense forces, the air defense command post is established, which is mobile and always with the Front main command post and considered as an integral part of it. The air defense command post includes the following elements:
----- - combat conmtrol center
----- - center of collection and analysis of reconnaissance information and warning of the troops
----- - signal center, composed of receiving and transmiting radios

In the air defense command post a 24 hour duty service is conducted by alternate duty teams or by full combat staff. In order to provide for constant air defense troop control, the required number of personnel with communications means from the air defense command post is detached to establish a forward air defense command post.

To control the action of the fighter aircraft a combat control center for the air army fighter aircraft and also operational groups of air defense operational formations and formations operating in the area are established in the air defense command post. The following elements are established:

A combat control center of the air army is established in the air defense command post of the combained arms and tank armies.

A group for combat control of the air is established in the command posts of the infantry and tank divisions.

Guidance and target identification points are established with the command posts of the air defense rocket units.

The control of the Front air defense troops is conducted by the Front commander. He personally establishs the concept of the air defense, determines the troops and means for each objective, issues tasks, and establishs interaction.

The direct control of air defense troops during the repelling of enemy attacks is conducted by the cheif of Front air defense.



coordination (interaction) of Front air defense troops with other air defense troops and means

Interaction (coordination) of air defense is established at the Front level and it is aimed at the most effective use of the combat capability of the air defense to totally destroy enemy air targets on the axis of approach to friendly troops and to cover installations.

The interaction (coordination) is a concerted and continuous effort of air defense means coordinated in terms of objectives, time, place, and the forms of accomplishment of combat missions.



Interaction between air defense rocket units and fighter aircraft

The interaction is established separately in their own areas and jointly in their areas of common action.

While interacting in their separate areas the fighter aircraft operate in front of, in the intervals between, at the flanks, or at the rear of the areas of combat action of the air defense rocket units. In this form of action the question of security of the fighter aircraft is not present. This form of interaction is easy and the tasks to repel the enemy attack are more clear.

While interacting in a common area (the area of the action of air defense rockets) the efforts of fighter aircraft and air defense rockets is divided in terms of different altitudes, directions (secotrs), lines and targets.

The decision about where the interaction should be conducted and what forms in the common area is made in the air defense command post of the Front (army) normally by the beginning of repelling the enemy sorties after the assessment of the characteristics of their flight.

The cheif of front air defense, along with the air army commander, during organization of interaction between air defense troops and fighter aircraft determines the following points;
----- - the form of combat action of fighter aircraft in different phases of the operation
----- - the method of exchange of reconnaissance information on the air enemy
----- - adjustment of the combat action area of rocket troops and fighter aivation, the area of patroling in the air, the interception lines of enemy targets from air patrol positions and from the airfield positions
----- - the method of establishing form of fighter aircraft during repelling enemy first massive strike and also the action of fighter aircraft and rocket troops in one area.
----- - the action of air defense means and fighter aircraft to cover airborne assault units in their assembly areas, embarkcation areas,during their flight, and landing and in the course of their combat action, and the measures to coordinate the actions of air defense means and fighter aircraft.
----- - the flight corridors of fighter aircraft
----- - the method of relocation of air defense troops and fighter aircraft and their maneuver in the course of the operation which should be readjucted during the conduct of the operation.



Interaction or coordination of Front air defense troops with the air defense operational formations and formations of border Fronts (border forces).

In establishing the interaction between them the following issues are organized;
----- - coordinating the action of air defense troops and means which are assigned to cover the Front troops and departure areas and in the attack zone and the method of their action.
----- - determining possible maneuver of these troops in support of the Front and the organization of the action of Front air defense troops on the most important lines in the attack zone and their relocation and also specifying the interception line for fighter aviation.
----- - resolving the question related to organization of the air defense of Front supply routes after the advance of the troops, method of expanding the air defense system in the wake of the Front attacking troops. composition of operational groups and method of air attachment to coordinating headquarters.
----- - specification of the method of employment of air defense radar system in the interest of the Front.
----- - planning the combat action during combined operations (seaborne and airborne assault operations)

(note: the control of air defense troops allocated for combined operations is conducted by the Front commander and direct control of air defense troops is exercized by air defense troop commanders and air defense chiefs of the Front and army)

----- -specification of the method of interatction between air defense troops and Front fighter aircraft with the air defense troops and fighter aircraft of operational formations and formations
----- - determining the unified system of identification of friendly aircraft



Method of interaction and coordination between Front air defense troops and the air defense troops of adjacent fronts.

In coordinating the action of air defense troops of the Front with air defense troops of adjacents the following points are specified;
----- - method of mutual warning about the enemy
----- - composition of those fighter aircraft troops which are assigned to operate in the area of adjacent fronts and the form of calling them in
----- - the airfields designated for landing of those fighter aircraft wich operate in the area of the adjacent Front and their rear service support
----- - the method of flight of the fighter aircraft in the area of air defense rocket troops and measures related to the questions of their security
----- - coordinating the position areas of air defense rocket troops of the Front (army) to establish a reliable air defense on the common flanks



Organization of supply of air defense guided rockets

Supply of Front air defense troops with air defense rockets is planned and organized on the basis of the allocated number of rockets allocated for the operation. Therefore the requirements for rockets is assessed on the basis of tasks in the operation and the reserve which should be available in the troops at the end of the operation to support the future combat actions.

The distribution of rockets allocated for the operation is conducted by the chief of the air defense troops of the Front, depending on the character of the enemy actions and the significance of the direction of the attack the number of allocated rockets to different formations is not the same, but at the beginning of the initiation of the operation the air defense rocket troops should have the maximum reserve of rockets.

During preparation for the operation the necessary plan documents are prepared which will show the expenditure of different types of air defense rockets, and instructions are issued about the supply, preparation, and maintenance of rockets.

During the preparation of the supporting measures about air defense rockets the following points are specified, the areas of deployment of the air defense rocket depots and the methods of their relocation, availability, supply, distribution, and time of preparation of the rockets.

The chief of air defense troops along with the chief of rocket technical supply service organize supply of rockets. The chief of air defense informs the technical rocket service chief about the number of air defense rocket launchers in the Front, their supply status with rockets, the areas of deployment of technical battalions of air defense rocket regiments. Additionally the method of supply of rockets, time of delivery, listing and number of rockets to be resupplied, time and place of their delivery, directions of movement of supply vehicles, and method of relocation of positions for air defense rockets are coordinated.

(add two tables)
air defense rockets andair defense artillery



IV. Conduct of Air Defense

The combat action of Front air defense forces and means is a collection of measures conducted to destroy the air enemy and to prevent his strikes against friendly troops and objectives. These meausres include the following:
----- - continuous reconnaissance of the air enemy
----- - bringing the air defense troops to a high state of combat readiness and their commitment to repel the initial and subsequent strikes of the aerial enemy
----- - conduct of maneuver and regroupment of air defense forces and means and restoration of the air defense system and the troops' combat capabilities
----- - maintaining of coordination among the air defense troops in the course of repelling the enemy air strikes and continuous control of air defense troops and means

In order to bring the troops to the status of higher combat readiness for repelling enemy air attacks the following states of combat readiness are established: constant, higher and full combat readiness.

In peacetime the air defense troops are in the state of constant combat readiness. In this case a part of the troops and means are assigned to the 24 hour-duty cycle. The command and control of these troops is normally conducted from the command post of the air defense operational formations or formations and from the air defense command post of the Front. When thesituation becomes complicated the air defense troops and means of theFront are brought to the higher or full combat readiness. The sequence and method of conducting duties in the higher state of combat readiness are determined on the basis of plans and the conditions of the situation.

The enemy can launch a surprise air attack before the Front troops accomplish their preparations for the attack. In such circumstances the repulsion of the enemy air attack is conducted by on-duty air defense troops and means and at the same time other troops are brought to full combat readiness and are committed into action while the air forces on both sides are deploying for aerial action.

By the arrival of information about the flights of enemy aircraft and as the information about the initiation of the massive initial strike is acquired the efforts of all kinds of reconnaissance are directed to timely detection ofenemy aircraft, to determine the main direction of their flight, to locate the main grouping of enemy air attack means, and to specify the likely areas and objectives of their combat actions. Special attention is given to the detection of targets at low and very low altitudes, mobile and maneuvering targets, and also the aircraft conducting radio jamming.

At the same time as the commitment of the on-duty air defense troops and means, theremaining air defense means are brought to the state of full combat readiness.

Until all air defense troops of the Front are brought to full combat readiness, the command and control of the repulsion of the massive flights of the enemy aircraft is conducted from the command post of the air defense operational formations or formations established and allocated in peacetime to control the on-duty air defense troops.

On the basis of reconnaissance information about the aerial enemy and information about the status of friendly air defense troops and means, the chief of Front's air defense troops, without waiting for more detailed information, reconfirms the decision about the repulsion of the enemy sorties. In his decision the chief of Front air defense troops determines which grouping of the aerial enemy on which lines should be destroyed by what troops, the missions of air defense troops and Front fighter aircraft, and the method of coordination with other air defense formations, operational formations, and with others.

When enemy preparations for the attack are detected, the Front troops are brought to the state of full combat readiness in advance. The grouping of air defense troops and means are deployed and therefore the massive flights of the enemy's air forces are repelled by all air defense troops and means and Front fighter aircraft in coordination with other interacting air defense means.

The enemy aircraft, which break through the area of combat action of the first echelon fighter aircraft are destroyed by air defense rocket troops as they enter the rocket troops' areas of action.

After issuing missions to the air defense forces and means, the chief of air defense troops and the commander of the Front air army control their combat action. Depending on the combat situation, they influence the course of combat against the aerial enemy by commitment of new troops into combat, directing the maneuver in the air of large units and units, and by commitment of their reserves into combat.

In the course of the enemy initial massive flight or after it has been repulsed the disrupted air defense system of the Front air defense tgroops and the command and contgrol system of air defense troops and means, which is interrupted by the enemy action, are restored. Also combat readiness and combat capability of the air defense troops and means are restored, necessary regrouping of air defense troops and means is conducted, and the damaged equipment is repaired, and other measures are taken to prepare the air defense troops and means for the repulsion of the subsequent enemy flights.

As the attack is initiated the Front air defense troops andmeans relocate in turns on the basis of the air defense plans for the operation and the actual situation. The chief of Front air defense instructs the Front air defense units and formations on the time for leaving their positions for relocation, the direction of their movement, and the time to be prepared in their new positions.

In the course of the offensive operation on the lines where by the arrival of friendly troops massive and concentrated enemy air strikes are probable the air defense units and formations assigned to cover the first echelon troops should be totally or mainly deployed when the troops arrive. These lines could be the following:
----- - the forward line of the enemy defense
----- - intermediate enemy defense lines
----- - the line of commitment of sechond echelon troops
----- - water obstacle lines
----- - lines for repelling enemy counterblows
----- - lines of deployment for meeting engagement, etc

The radio-technical air defense battalion of the first echelon armies during the attack conducts the reconnaissance of the aerial enemy by those of its radar companies which are deployed in position. The remaining radar companies move behind the first echelon divisions of the army and deploy in positions which the chief of the army air defense troops designates in order to expand the area of radar coverage.

The S-75 air defense rocket regiment involved in covering the main grouping of forces relocates in alternating groups of one or two battalions each, by bounds of 30 - 50 km.
The S-75 air defense rocket regiment which covers the installations and objectives in the operational rear relocates in full strength simultaneously with the relocation of the covered targets. (One time in each one to two days.) Or they are assigned to move to cover new and important targets.

The air derfense artillery division (regiment) which coveres targets in operational rear area relocates simultaneously with the covered targets in the course ofthe offensive operation orthey are moved to cover new tqargets.

The relocation of the fighter aircraft bases is conducted in accord with the plan of the army coordinated with the air defense plan.

The chief of Front air defense troops constantly follows the air and ground situation and reports to the Front commander about the changes in the air situation, readjusts the missions of air defense troops and means, and the coordination amongst them, takes necessary measures to provide timely support for air defense rocket troops in terms of supply of rockets and supply of ammunition to air defense artillery. he also assigns missions to subordinates and informs the adjacents about the air situaiton in the Front area. Moreover, the chief of air defense constantly maintains coordination with national air defense forces and adjacent Fronts.

When the Front troops enter a meeting engagement at the beginning of the operation, their cover is provided by the same air defense grouping which was established at the beginning of the operation. But if the meeting engagement developes in the course of the subsequent operation the air defense troops are maneuvered and their efforts are concentrated to cover the grouping of forces which operates on important directions or to cover combined arms reserve who are approaching to be committed to reenforce the attack. to accomplish this mission the main part of the fighter aircraft operating in the first echelon of the air army are called regardless of their allocated area of action. The divisions are instructed about the line of commitment of fighter aircradft to combat and the method of their command and control. Efforts of all reconnaissance means should be guided to detect the committment of new enemy troops into combat.

The air defense of second echelon armies during their advance andcommitment into combat is provided by Front air defense troops and means and the air defense means of second echelon armies and the firts echelon army which operates in the area of the commitment of the second echelon army.

Prior to the committment of the second echelon armies into combat the cheif of air defense specifies the missions of air defense troops and means and the method of their deployment and coordination. He also gives instructions on combat action of Front air defense troops and means to support the commitment of second echelon toops into combat and specifies the number of allocated air defense rockets and rounds and the time of their delivery to the troops. The cheif of air defense troops also issues instructions on the organization of radar reconnaissance, warning and command and control.

The repulse of the enemy air attack against second echelon armies in their assembly areas is conducted by the armies organic air defnse means, and Front fighter aviation. The method of combat action of air defense troops and means in coordination amongst them is readjusted accordingto the situation by the chief of Front air defense forces.

As the advance of the second echelon troops to the line of commitment begins their cover against enemy air strikes is provided as follows:
----- - the air defense means of large units which are marching in column;
----- - the air defense means of armies firing from temporary positions. Such positions are established on the main direction of advance, on large rivers, road junctions, built up areas, and in open parts of the terrain.
----- - the air defense rocket troops
----- - special purpose radio-technical troops and fighter aircraft operating in the over-all air defense system of the Front.

In the area of the commitment of the second echelon to combat cover of the army troops is provided by the system of air defense troops and means organized by the Front and also at the same time by the army air defense troops, and air defense rocket troops of the Front advancing from the depth, as well as the air defense rocket troops of those first echelon armies located where the second echelon is going to be commitmed. Moreover, the bulk of the Front fighter aviation is also called to cover the second echelon during its commitment. command and control of the troops and means during the repulse of the enemy's massive flight is conducted by the air defense command post.



During crossing over water obstacles in the course of the operation The air defense should cover the following targets:
----- - the main forces of first echelon approaching the river and those troops which have crossed the river and are on the far bank and also the crossing sites where the troops conduct assault river crossings to develop the attack rapidly.

Based on the decision of the Front commander's decision for an assault rever crossing, the cheif of air defense is assigned to conduct the following tasks:
----- - providing for timely advance of the air defense rocket troops and air defense artillery and radio-technical units to the river;
----- - reenforcement of fighter air patrols along the approaches to the water obstacle and the the area of the assault crossing
----- - readjustment of the coordination between the troops and the air defense means.

The air defense troops and means should move to the crossing areas in a manner that will insure that they can organize the air defense of the crossing sites and the crossing troops prior to any likely enemy air attacks.

The bulk of the air defense troops and means allocated to cover the crossing sites and crossing troops on the far bank move with the first echelon troops. The air defense means of first echelon divisions are crossed to the far bank by organic and attached crossing means. The Front (army) air defense rocket and radar units deploy on the firendly bank and cover the crossing of the main forces of the troops. The crossing of these air defense units to the far bank is conducted by rafts and bridges.

Depending on the situation and importance of the crossing sites, a part of the air defense troops and means of the first echelon are allocated to cover them after the first echelon troops of the Front have crossed the river until they are relieved by other air defense means of the Front.



In order to reenforce the air defense of the troops in the direction of likely enemy counterblows Maneuver of the air defense units and fighter aircraft is conducted on the basis of the decision of the Front commander. If the enemy launches airborne assault landing during its counterblow, the air defense troops destroy them during their flight and landing (dropping) and also the air defense troops provide air cover for friendly troops assigned to destroy enemy airborne troops on the ground.

The air defense of friendly airborne troops is provided for on the baiss of the air defense plan and conducted by the air defense troops and means allocated for this purpose.

The repulse of the enemy air attacks on the troops which pursue the retreating enemy is conducted by those air defense rockets (and artilery) units and fighter aircraft which move behind the attacking troops or relocate to new positions. Their efforts are primairly concentrated for air defense of the most successful troop grouping or those which have cutoff the enemy's retreat.

In the course of the offensive operation the Front air defense troops and means will relocate simultaneously with the covered troops and this will leave some of the targets and supply routes siezed from the enemy uncovered. Therefore in order to cover such targets against enemy air strikes movement of part of the national air defense troops in the wake of the attacking Front becomes necessary. To accomplish this task the radio-technical troops and fighter aircraft will be employed first of all. The air defense rocket units rarely will be following the Front's attacking troops, but if so, they will be the troops of the national air defense forces or those taken away from the targets which have lost their significance for being covered. Movement of part of the national air defense forces can be conducted by special order of the supreme high command.

 
 

Organization and Conduct of Air Defense During the Conduct of Front Counterstrikes

While conducting front counterblows (counterstrikes) part of the air defense radio technical regiment's radars are maneuvered (moved). This establishes a dense (saturated) radar covered area at low altitudes on deployment lines of troops conducting counterblows (counterstrikes).

While covering troops during the initiation of front counterblows (counterstrikes), maneuver of front air defense rocket and artillery units are conducted. They are moved in the direction of the counterblow. Simultaneously, first-echelon armies' air defense rocket and artillery troops are regrouped to reinforce air defense cover for counterstriking forces in areas where counterblows (counterstrikes) are launched.

The organic air defense rocket and artillery of troops participating in counterblows (counterstrikes) are employed to provide air defense at the following times:
- during deployment of troops;
- during movement of troops to counterstrike lines;
- during development of the attack.

Moreover, a portion of the fighter aviation troops are allocated to cover counterstriking forces, and their form (method) of action is specified.

The fighter aircraft, as a rule, operate from on-call (standby) status on the airfields. Their main effort is concentrated on covering main groupings of counterstriking forces.

 
 

AIR DEFENSE IN ARMY OFFENSIVE OPERATIONS


 
 

I. COMPOSITION OF AIR DEFENSE FORCES OF THE FRONT, ARMY AND MOTORIZED RIFLE DIVISION AND REGIMENT

 
 

1. In the Front

The composition of front air defense means is not standard and it also may vary in the strategic operation depending on the following:
- composition of the front;
- front's missions;
- front's role;
- location of the front.

The composition of the front air defense forces and means is specified by the Supreme High Command. It usually includes the following elements:
a. Two to three S-75 air defense rocket regiments. Each regiment containing six rockets (total of eighteen S-75 rockets [launchers] in the regiment).
b. One to two S-125 air defense rocket regiments. Each regiment is composed of three battalions containing eight rockets (launchers) (total of twenty-four S-125 rockets [launchers] in the regiment.
c. One to two air defense artillery divisions. Each division composed of three to four regiments. In each regiment there are six air defense artillery batteries containing eight guns (total of forty-eight 57 mm antiaircraft guns.
d. One air defense radio technical regiment.

A front composed of three combined arms and one tank army, in the Western TVD, will have the following air defense means excluding the divisional air defense forces and means:
- six to eleven S-75 air defense rocket regiments;
- one to two air defense artillery divisions;
- four to eight separate air defense artillery (S-60) regiments;
- one to two S-125 air defense rocket regiments;
- one radio technical regiment;
- three to four radio technical battalions;
- two to three fighter aviation divisions (six to nine regiments).


 
 

2. In Combined Arms Army

The combined arms army contains the following:
a. One to two S-75 air defense rocket regiments. Each regiment is composed of three rocket battalions containing six air defense rocket systems [launchers] (total of eighteen S-75 air defense rocket launchers in the regiment.
b. One to two air defense artillery regiments. There are six air defense artillery batteries in the regiment. Each consists of six guns (total of thirty-six 57mm air defense guns in the regiment.
c. One air defense radio technical battalion.


3. In Motorized Rifle Division
a. One S-60 air defense artillery regiment composed of four batteries with six guns in each (total of twenty-four 57mm guns in the regiment).
b. There are 114 Strela-2M air defense rockets in a motorized rifle division and sixty-nine Strela-2Ms in a tank division.

4. In Motorized Rifle Regiment


The motorized rifle regiment contains an air defense battery of two platoons in the regiment which are the following:
- platoon of ZSU-23-4 with four systems;
- platoon of ZPU-4 with four systems.


 
 

Combat Capabilities of Army Air Defense Troops

Combat capabilities of army air defense troops are measured in the following terms:
- fire power;
- coverage area;
- maneuver capability of air defense units and large units;
- capability to supply and prepare rockets.

 
 

Fire Power

Fire power is the capability of inflicting potential losses on the following:
- air targets;
- dimension of destruction areas;
- numbers of targets which may be destroyed in one cycle of fire in a specific time.
- S-75 air defense rocket regiment engages air targets and under favorable conditions may destroy them and resume fire on other targets after two minutes;
- The S-60 air defense artillery regiment of the division fires on one target at a time;
- The army's S-60 air defense regiment may fire on two targets at a time;
- The air defense battery of motorized rifle and tank regiments may destroy one target at a time and may shift fire on another target after one minute;
- The Strela-2M squad (three Strela-2M portable rockets) fires on one target. Probability of destroying the air target with one squad is 0.53-0.6. Therefore, three squads must be employed to destroy one aerial target.
Destruction capabilities of air defense means differ between day and night. It must be noted that enemy aircraft will fly on certain directions not over the entire army area. All army air defense means may destroy twelve to thirteen aircraft in one cycle of fire.


 
 

Areas Covered

The areas covered by air defense means depends on the following:
- altitude;
- speed and position of flight of the target;
- type of destruction and jamming means;
- range of the air defense means;
- distance between air defense battalions.


 
 

Capability of Maneuver

The capability of maneuver is determined by the following:
- time of deployment into combat formations;
- speed of movement;
- range of movement (zapas khoda);
- crossing capability (cross country movement capability).


 
 

Capability for Supplying and Preparing Rockets and Rounds

The capability for supplying and preparing rockets and rounds depends on the capability of rocket technical subunits to assemble and prep rockets. To accomplish this task technical battalions are organized. One technical battalion in a sixteen hour day may prepare thirty S-75 rockets. All front rocket technical battalions may prepare 180-330 S-75 rockets and 250-500 S-125 rockets in a day (twenty-four hours).


 
 

Aims and Missions of Air Defense in Army Offensive Operations

Air defense in army offensive operations is organized to protect the following:
- striking forces;
- fire means;
- army rear service targets.

Air defense provides this protection in order to accomplish the following:
- protect against enemy air strikes;
- cover and support their free (unimpeded) maneuver;
- successful conduct of their combat missions.


This aims are achieved through the following:
- inflicting decisive losses on the aerial enemy over the approaches and over the location of the friendly forces;
- foiling strikes of the aerial enemy;
- timely detection of the aerial enemy.


Principle Air Defense Missions

The principle air defense missions in the offensive operation are as follows:
- covering main groupings of forces and other targets in army areas;
- conducting reconnaissance to detect the aerial enemy and warning the air defense;
- destroying enemy pilotless (drones) and manned reconnaissance aircraft;
- fighting enemy air assault troops in the air.


 
 

Organization of Air Defense in Army Offensive Operations

Organization of air defense is a number of measures taken by the chief of army air defense and his staff to organize air defense in support of army offensive operations. These measures include the following:
- planning army air defense and conveying missions on air defense to troops;
- establishing groupings of air defense troops in the departure (FUP) areas, preparing them for combat actions and maintaining constant combat-readiness to repel enemy air attacks.
- organizing air defense during the conduct of offensive operations to accomplish missions related to the following:
- assault crossing over major water obstacles;
- committing second-echelon forces into combat;
- repulsing enemy counterblows;
- organizing troop control and interaction of air defense forces and means;
- organizing combat support measures and supply of air defense guided rockets.


 
 

Planning Air Defense

The chief of army air defense prepares army air defense plans after receiving missions from the army commander. He studies the instructions from the higher staff on air defense and all-around assessment (estimate) of the situation. He then issues instructions and combat instructions on air defense to motorized rifle, tank large units, and air defense units.

The air defense plan in army offensive operations is a detailed formulation of the air defense decision combined with calculations and necessary instructions. The air defense plan is a part of the plan of army offensive operations.

The air defense plan is graphically prepared on a 1/200,000 or 1/100,000 scale map with written instructions. In the graphic part of the plan the following elements are reflected:
- composition, groupings, and likely directions of the attack from the aerial enemy and the main groupings of enemy ground forces;
- operational formation of army troops, its command posts, army boundaries, and army missions;
- position areas of air defense and radio technical units, immediate adjacent, front and national air defense means operating in army areas, in departure (FUP) areas, and in the entire depth of army offensive operations. The line of reconnaissance of the aerial enemy by radar and the destruction (killing) zone of air defense means.
- fighter aviation airfields, lines of intercepting enemy aircraft, areas of air patrolling;
- missions conducted by forces and means of other branches of services in the interest of air defense (where, when, and by what means enemy air targets are destroyed.
- directions (areas) of the flight of aircraft carrying airborne assault troops;
- bridges and crossings over rivers.


Other information and calculations are reflected in writing in written instructions along with necessary annexes. The written instructions illustrate the following:
- brief deductions of the assessment of the enemy;
- concepts and missions of air defense;
- combat composition of air defense troops and means and their combat capability;
- control of air defense forces and means;
- organizing coordination (interaction) with fighter aviation and other air defense means;
- availability, supplying (delivering), and distributing rockets (rounds);
- methods of numbering air targets;
- warning troops of the aerial enemy;
- combat-readiness and combat standby (on-call) duties of air defense means.

 
 

Annexes to air defense plans include the following:
- plan of detection (reconnaissance) of the aerial enemy;
- warning and signal diagram;
- other necessary tables and graphics.

Army air defense plans are signed by the army's chief of staff and chief of air defense. It is approved by the army commander. Written instructions are signed by the chief of army air defense.


 
 

Organization of Air Defense During Assault Crossings Over Major Water Obstacles

During air defense assault river crossing missions the following are specified and reconfirmed in advance:
- likely groupings in crossing areas;
- form of movement to water obstacles;
- their deployment on the friendly bank of the water obstacles.

Air defense rocket units assigned to cover crossing areas, move as part of the forward detachment, to the water obstacles and deploy there. This is done in accordance with instructions from the army chief of air defense troops (PVO). They will cover actions of friendly troops during their assault crossings.

In crossing areas, air defense artillery covers crossing sites against low flying enemy aircraft. Divisional air defense artillery means are interspersed in marching columns of troops and move to water obstacles with the columns. Under some conditions air defense artillery of divisions move as part of the forward detachment to cover them during assault crossings.

Air defense rocket means cross to the far bank in accordance with the advance of friendly troops. Special purpose radio technical means (spitsnaz s) are also deployed in the crossing area. Air defense rocket means assigned to cover rear service targets move along with covered targets to water obstacles and cross to the far bank.

Radar means cross with army first-echelon forces in order to be able to quickly detect enemy aircraft and warn troops about them.

When enemy air forces actively operate during the conduct of assault river crossings, friendly fighter aircraft patrolling in the air or located in an on-call (standby) status on the airfields are employed against them. If the airfields of fighter aircraft are a long distance from the crossing sites, necessary measures are taken to move them to forward airfields.


 
 

Organization of Air Defense of Army Second-Echelon (Reserve) Forces During Their Movement and Commitment into Combat

 
 

Air defense cover of second-echelon troops in their assembly areas is provided by the following located in the areas of deployment of second-echelon troops:
- their organic air defense means;
- fighter aircraft;
- national air defense forces.

During their movement to the line of commitment into combat, their air defense cover is reinforced by air defense rocket units and radio technical units of special designation (spitsnaz).

The organic air defense troops of the army's second-echelon forces cover them during their movement. Army's air defense means deploy on directions of the movements of second-echelon forces in the vicinity of the following important locations:
- crossing sites;
- road junctions;
- built-up areas;
- open terrain segments;
- oasises.

The commitment of the army's second-echelon into combat is covered by the following:
- army air defense rockets and artillery;
- adjacent divisions air defense means;
- air defense means of the army's second-echelon troops.

Warning the army's second-echelon about the aerial enemy is conducted by the army's air defense (PVO) command posts. Simultaneously, commitment of the army's second-echelon may be supported by fighter aviation.


 
 

Organization of Air Defense During Repulsion of Enemy Counterstrikes


Air defense cover for forces assigned to repel enemy counterstrikes is provided by their organic air defense forces and means. To reinforce the air defense of forces operating on the likely directions of enemy main attacks, in accordance with the decision of the army commander, army's air defense means may be shifted from other directions. Assistance is requested from front fighter aviation when needed.

If while conducting counterstrikes (counterblows) the enemy employs air assault troops, such troops are destroyed by air defense means during their flight and during their dropping (landing). Air defense troops also provide air defense for troops engaged in combat with enemy airborne assault troops on the ground.


 
 

Organization of Control of Air Defense Troops During Preparation and Conduct of Army Offensive Operations


Control of the air defense troops by the army commander during the offensive operation is exercised through the chief of air defense troops.


Direct responsibility of control of the air defense troops is borne by the army's chief of air defense troops and his staff.

Control of air defense troops includes the following:
- the process of distributing targets among air defense means;
- sustaining and continuing control of actions of air defense troops by air defense chiefs of divisions and commanders of army's air defense large units and units whose efforts are directed toward the accomplishment of the assigned missions;
- all-around support of combat actions.

To control air defense troops, mobile air defense control points are established in the army at two positions (one composed of the forces and means of army's radio technical battalion and the other by army's air defense directorate). They move and relocate in an alternate form.

In the division and regiment control of air defense means is conducted from the air defense control points and i the air defense units from their command posts.

Army air defense large units and units are controlled by their commanders. Air defense means of divisions and regiments are controlled by divisions air defense chiefs.

Control of fighter aviation is conducted from front air defense control centers, where the deputy commander of the air army, an operational group, and required signal and control means operate.

In army air defense control points, the forward command post of a fighter aviation division is established. It is established under the deputy commander of fighter aviation divisions, or another representative of the division, with signal communication means. He is authorized to call allocated fighter aviation to operate in the interest of army air defense.

When army air defense control points are put out of action, air defense control must be delegated to air defense control points of one of the divisions or to the command post of air defense rocket regiments.


 
 

Organization of Reconnaissance (Detection) of the Enemy and Warning of the Troops

Reconnaissance (detection) of the enemy is conducted in the following forms:
- by army air defense radio technical battalions, reconnaissance, and target acquisition radars of the reconnaissance, and control platoons of air defense;
- by chiefs of motorized rifle and tank divisions;
- by reconnaissance and target acquisition (identification) of air defense units and subunits;
- visual observation from all command posts of the troops.

Information acquired is used to quickly detect aerial enemies and to warn air defense means and troops about him.

Radar reconnaissance (detection) of aerial enemies in army areas is organized by the army chief of air defense, using the air defense radio technical battalion. In division areas it is organized by the divisional chief of air defense, using P-15 radar, reconnaissance, and target acquisition (identification) of divisional air defense regiments.

The army's air defense radio technical battalion may conduct reconnaissance (detection) of the aerial enemy at a depth of 160 km (for medium and high altitudes) and at a depth of 80 km (for the depth of low and lower altitudes) in a frontage of 80-100 km.

By using forces and means from army radio technical battalions, two radar companies (posts) at a distance of ten kilometers from the frontline and fifty kilometers apart from one another are established in the area of a first-echelon army. Across the army's front, two radar posts are deployed and two other companies are kept in reserve to accomplish the following:
- expand radar coverage areas during the conduct of the offensive operation;
- establish a new line of radar posts.

The second line of radar posts are established by the front fifty kilometers from the first line of radar posts.

The reconnaissance and target acquisition (identification) radar stations (CPU) of the reconnaissance and control platoons of division air defense chiefs and air defense units are employed for reconnaissance of the aerial enemy in accordance with their respective plans. They are deployed in division and air defense unit areas and are alternately relocated.

The reconnaissance and target acquisition (identification) radars of army air defense units are also deployed in accordance with decisions of unit commanders and are alternately relocated.

Visual observation of the aerial enemy is established by all commanders in their command posts.

While organizing the offensive operations, radar means i the army are inactive and reconnaissance (detection) of the enemy is conducted by front radar means. Therefore, two to four front radar posts are deployed in the army's area.

The army's air defense radio technical battalion relocates once in 1-1.5 days (24-36 hours). They move from previous positions to a distance of thirty to kilometers.


 
 

Warning of Troops

Warning of troops prior to the activation of army radars is conducted in the following ways:
- in a centralized method from the command post of national air defense large units;
- in a decentralized method from the command post of the closest radar of national air defense forces deployed in army areas.

When army radar becomes operational, warning of troops is conducted in the following ways:
- in a centralized method from the army air defense control points;
-in a decentralized method from the closest army radar post or from the reconnaissance and target identification radar stations (CPU) of divisions and air defense units.

Warning at the lower echelons (motorized rifle division, motorized rifle and tank regiment) is conducted through signal command net and sometimes through special warning nets.

As part of interaction, air defense control points receive information from the air defense control points of the front and adjacent armies.

The time of transmitting information must not exceed two minutes. When automatic control systems are used it must not exceed thirty seconds.


 
 

II. AIR DEFENSE IN ARMY DEFENSIVE OPERATIONS

 
 

Aims of Air Defense in Army Defensive Operations

Aims of air defense in army defensive operations are the following:
- to cover main forces and vital army rear service targets;
-to cover army troops during the conduct of army counterblows (counterstrikes) against enemy air attacks;
- to quickly detect (reconnoiter) the aerial enemy.


 
 

Missions of Air Defense in Defensive Operations


Missions of air defense in defensive operations are the following:
- covering main groupings of forces, rocket and artillery troops, vital rear service targets, and command posts against enemy air strikes;
- reconnaissance (detection) of the aerial enemy and warning of air defense troops about him;
- fighting enemy airborne assault troops and their destruction in the air;
- covering forces conducting army counterblows (counterstrikes).


 
 

Some specifics of Air Defense in Army Defensive Operations


Air Defense During Preparation and Conduct of Counterblows (Counterstrikes)


Army large units which are assigned to conduct counterblows (counterstrikes) are covered against the air by the following:
- its organic air defense means;
- air defense units and subunits of first-echelon large units operating in directions of counterblows (counterstrikes);
- by army's air defense rocket and artillery units.

Moreover, forces which conduct counterblows are covered by front fighter aircraft which are patrolling in the air or are in a state of on-call (standby) duty in airfields.

In order to intensify reconnaissance of the enemy by radar, it is recommended that in the direction of the counterblows (counterstrikes) a radar company of the army's air defense radio technical battalion be deployed.

The organic air defense artillery of forces which conduct counterblows conduct their combat actions in marching columns of their related units.

Army air defense means which are allocated to support counterblows, deploy in advance in the areas of counterblows (counterstrikes).
If the counterblow has to be launched in an area where the level of terrain radiation is high, air defense cover is provided at the borders of contaminated areas. However, the direction of wind must be taken into consideration. Moreover, in such situations air defense cover is provided by fighter aircraft which are patrolling in the air or are in a state of on-call (standby) duty in the airfields.


 
 

Organization of Reconnaissance of the Enemy and Warning the Troops About Him

Reconnaissance of the aerial enemy by radar and warning the troops in defensive operations is organized by the army's chief of air defense (PVO). This is accomplished in accordance with instructions from the front commander.

During organization of defensive operations at the beginning of the war (initial phase of war) radar reconnaissance of the aerial enemy is conducted by radio technical troops of border large units of national air defense forces. The army deploys one to two companies and conducts duty in a closed form. When the appropriate signal is given from the army air defense control point, they initiate actions. The rest of the radar companies are in reserve and they are constantly ready for deployment.

Warning the troops and rear service targets, in this situation, is conducted from the command post of the large unit and command post of the radio technical units of the national air defense forces.

When the army assumes the defense during the course of the conduct of front offensive operations, army radio technical battalions establish the first-echelon radar companies of the front. These companies are deployed in areas which are not suitable for tanks. The distance of their line of deployment from the frontline will be ten kilometers. They will be forty to fifty kilometers from one another.
The number of radar companies in the first-echelon depends on the width of the defensive frontage and terrain conditions. If the lowest area of radar coverage is at 500 m, then the interval between radar companies across the front will be forty to fifty kilometers.

In order to enhance reliable reconnaissance of the aerial enemy at lower altitudes, it is recommended that reconnaissance and target identification stations of divisional chiefs of air defense and those of air defense artillery units are assigned and visual observation is established.

During operations on coastlines, communications are established with naval radars. Radios in reception modes are entered in the naval radio warning net.

When the army operates on a wider front or in mountainous terrain, the army is reinforced by front radio technical subunits.

The warning of troops and rear service targets about aerial enemy attacks is conducted in the following forms:
- a centralized form from the army command posts;
- a decentralized form from the army radar companies or from local national air defense forces.

Warning of troops in army large units and units is conducted through combat radio nets. Methods of warning are specified by commanders of the large units in accordance with the following:
- situations;
- missions;
- time.

In addition to radar reconnaissance, visual observation is established in all air defense units and in all subunits.


 
 

III. AIR DEFENSE IN ARMY LONG-DISTANCE MARCHES (MOVEMENTS)

 
 

Aims of Air Defense

The aims of air defense during army long-distance marches is to maintain fir.and striking power of army troops during the following times:
- assembly;
- marches;
- arrival in designated areas to conduct combat missions.


 
 

Principle Missions of Air Defense During Army Marches (Movements)

The principle missions of air defense during army marches (movements) are the following:
- covering main forces nd other vital army targets in assembly areas, during marches, halts, daily, nightly, rest, and twenty-four hour rests, in passages, bridges, defiles, crossings, passes, etc. against the aerial enemy and to support organized arrival in designated areas;
- conducting enemy reconnaissance and warning air defense troops about the enemy in coordination (interaction) with national air defense forces, and the military district (front) in the area of jurisdiction in which army marches are conducted.


 
 

Organization of Army Air Defenses During Long-Distance Movements

Organization of air defense is one of the major aspects of preparing the army for movement and march. It includes a number of measures, the most important of which are the following:
- receiving missions and instructions from higher echelons on the conduct of marches (movements) and air defense;
- making decisions and planning air defense;
- assigning missions on air defense to troops;
- establishing groupings of air defense troops;
- organizing troop control and coordination (interaction).

Air defense is organized in accordance with instructions from the general staff or front commander (when the army is under front control).

During organization of army air defense in long-distance movements, the following points are taken into consideration:

1. In assessing tactical and technical characteristics of enemy aircraft it must e noted that enemy air strikes on army troops at a distance of up to 1,000 km from enemy airfields will be launched by enemy tactical aircraft. At longer distances by enemy strategic aircraft.

Strikes on units march columns, railroads, bridges, and other targets will be launched by groups of four to six or twelve to sixteen and even twenty aircraft and sometimes more.

Flight of enemy aircraft will be conducted at low, medium, and high altitudes under cover of fighter aircraft and under conditions of heavy radio-electronic suppression (jamming). Therefore, during movements of army troops from the interior of the country to the TVD, their air defense covers must be organized through the entire depth of their movements.


2. Forms of army movements will be as follows:

a. by organic means;

b. by railroads;

c. by a combined form (using organic means and railroads).

When the army moves by its organic means air defense is organized in the following areas:
- in areas of concentration after the combat alert signal and in assembly areas;
- covering march columns during their passage through water obstacles, mountain passes, defiles, major built-up areas, and road junctions;
- in small and large halt areas, in areas of day (night) rest, and in twenty-four hour rest areas.

When the army moves by railroad, air defense is organized in the following areas:
- in embarkation, debarkation, and re-embarkation areas;
- covering railroad columns along movement routes;
- air defense cover at railroad center areas (railheads), bridges, defiles, passes, and tunnels.

When the army moves in a combined form, air defense is organized in the following areas:
- in areas of concentration after combat alert signals and in assembly areas;
- in embarkation, debarkation, and re-embarkation areas;
- covering marching columns and railroad columns during movements;
- air defense in small and large halts, in areas of day (night) rests, and in areas of twenty-four hour rest;
- air defense while crossing bridges, in major road junction areas, during passage through mountain passes, defiles, and tunnels.


 
 

Conveying Instructions of the General Staff (Military District of Front) on Air Defense

Air defense of troops during movements are conducted by army air defense troops (i.e., army organic and attached air defense means) in coordination (interaction) with national air defense large units, and air defense troops of military districts, through areas which the army moves, and sometimes in cooperation with naval air defense means.

Air defense is organized in the following ways:
- on the basis of instructions from the general staff (when the army is directly under the Supreme High Command);
- in accordance with instructions from military districts;
- front staff (when army is under their command).

The general staff (military district command) specifies the following in their instructions:
- which large units of national air defense forces and military district (front) air defense forces and means are deployed in the sector of army movements and what missions are assigned to them;
- methods of interaction of army air defense troops with the above air defense fores;
- methods of reconnaissance of the aerial enemy and warning army troops about the flight of enemy aircraft.


 
 

Making Decisions on Air Defense During Long-Distance Marches and Army Movements

While making decisions the army commander assesses the following factors:
- situations and capabilities of army air defense troops;
- groupings of national air defense forces and air defense means of military districts (fronts) which are deployed in army sectors of movement (march);
- groupings, capabilities, and characteristics of actions of the aerial enemy.

Based on the assessments of the above factors the army commander gives the following instructions to the army's chief of air defense:
- which groupings of forces and targets must be covered at what phases;
- how interaction between army, national air defense forces, and air defense forces and means of military districts (fronts) should be established;
- methods of conduct of reconnaissance of enemy, warning, and control of the air defense troops during the march (movement).


 
 

Planning Army Air Defense in Long-Distance Marches and Movements

On the basis of the army commander's decisions and instructions from the higher staff, the army's chief of air defense (PVO) prepares the plan of army air defenses. It is planned on a map and covers the entire depth of army movements (marches) with written instructions.

The following elements are reflected in the plan:
- deductions from assessments of aerial enemies;
- sectors and directions of army troops marches, departure areas (starting areas), and aims of marches;
- marching formations of the army and locations for air defense troops in the formation;
- concentration areas per combat alarm signal, assembly areas, areas of embarkation and debarkation, areas of halts, day (night) rests, areas of twenty-four hour rest, passes, bridges, defiles and crossings and time for crossing them. Critical targets which need to be covered against air attacks (rear service troops and units, crossing sites, mountain passes, defiles, road junctions, etc.);
- composition and groupings of national (military district, front) air defense forces in army march sectors and methods of interaction with them;
- composition, capabilities, and groupings of army air defense troops and their relocation through the entire depth of march;
- organization of defense for air defense rockets and artillery;
- air defense cover by fighter aircraft;
- radar reconnaissance and methods of control of radar reconnaissance elements;
- methods for numbering air targets during the passage of army troops through national air defense large units and through territories of Warsaw Pat allies;
- methods of warning of marching troops;
- level of combat-readiness and duty (dijurnie) troops of air defense forces;
- availability, delivery, and distribution of air defense rockets and shells.

In annexes to the plan diagrams of warning and signal, and required tables and graphics are prepared.

The plan for air defense is signed by the army's chief of staff and chief of air defense. It is approved by the army commander.

Prior to the march and during the march, the plan is coordinated with related commanders of national air defense army and air defense chiefs of military districts (fronts).

Combat missions on air defense are conveyed to troops by combat instructions on air defense. These instructions are signed by the army's chief of staff and chief of air defense.


 
 

Conduct of Air Defense Cover by Air Defense Rocket and Artillery During Army Long-Distance Movements

When the army moves by its organic means, groupings of air defense means, in accordance with decisions of army commanders on types of movements (marches) formations to be established, must provide covering for main groupings of forces against aerial enemy strikes, primarily first-echelon troops, rocket brigades, and command posts.

The distribution of air defense units and subunits to movement directions and marching columns must support and insure the following:
- their rapid deployment into combat formations;
- establishment of strong reconnaissance and fire systems during stops, rests, halts, and arrival in assembly areas.

The air defense battery of motorized rifle and tank regiments, as a rule, moves by platoons in the composition of the march column of the advance guard or the main body in a status to be prepared to fire from movement or from short halts. The distance between platoons must provide for fire communications.

Infantry subunits must be ready to fire against low flying targets using infantry weapons and antiaircraft machine guns.

Air defense regiment of the division normally moves in batteries its composition is (interspersed through) march columns in a status which provides fire communications between batteries, i.e., batteries must be up to five kilometers apart from one another in march columns and they must always be prepared to fire from movement or from short halts.

It is recommended that the S-75 air defense rocket regiment be moved behind the advance guard and at the head of the main body column. As a rule it moves on two directions and is constantly ready to deploy into combat formation. The distance between battalions must provide for fire communications.

At halt areas, areas of rest, and in assembly areas air defense units and subunits prepare in order to accomplish the following:
- deploy into combat formations;
- occupy positions near movement routes;
- establish reconnaissance and troop control;
- take measures to receive warning signals about the aerial enemy.

During the movement a portion of air defense troops may deploy in advance in critical areas such as the following:
- bridges;
- passages;
- defiles;
- crossings;
- etc.

They move to such areas with forward detachments and advance guards. If meeting the enemy is not likely, air defense troops move in advance to those areas and support forward detachments advance guards) and the main body. They then reassemble behind the column of the main body and resume marching.


 
 

Reconnaissance and Control

Reconnaissance and warning is conducted by national air defense forces radars and front radars operating at the front. In order to receive information about flight of enemy aircraft, radios are put in reception mode at divisions air defense control points and at command posts of air defense units. They receive information from the aforementioned sources.

Army air defense radio technical battalions move on army routes behind or in front of command posts. In the assembly area one to two radar companies deploy and stay under cover. They must be constantly ready to initiate actions to conduct reconnaissance.

Warning within marching columns is conducted by sound and visual signals. In order to observe the enemy and warn the troops in each column and in each subunit air observers are assigned.


 
 

IV. AIR DEFENSE ARMY

 
 

The air defense army is an operational formation of the national air defense forces. They are assigned to provide air defense of the following:
- areas;
- targets;
- main groupings of forces.


 
 

Missions of Air Defense Armies


The overall missions of air defense armies is to repulse enemy air strikes against the following:
- political and administrative centers;
- industrial and military areas;
- other important targets located in its area.


In peacetime it destroys aircraft and other flying enemy objects which with a hostile intent violate out air space.


Moreover, covering the following are also missions of air defense armies:
- groupings of forces;
- airfields;
- aircraft;
- areas of mobilization of forces;
- naval bases;
- communication routes;
- supply bases;
- preventing breakthrough of the aerial enemy into the depth of the country.


The army's air defense missions, related to conduct of the operation are as follows:
- air defense of ground forces during their conduct of groupings in the TVD;
- reinforce air defense of naval forces at sea and during the conduct of operations by them;
- reinforce front air defense during their conduct of operations;
- air defense of airborne forces and military transport aviation in departure areas of airborne assault and along their course of flight.


 
 

Combat Composition of the Air Defense Army

Composition of the air defense army is not standard. It depends on the following:
- missions;
- significance of directions to be defended;
- characteristics of TVDs;
- dimensions of TVDs;
- number of targets to be covered;
- characteristics of enemy actions.

The air defense army will be composed of the following:
- one to two air defense corps;
- two to four air defense divisions;
- separate units of combat and combat support arms (branches of arms and special forces).

Composition of the air defense army may include the following:
- five to seven air defense rocket brigades;
- fifteen to twenty air defense rocket regiments;
- six to twelve fighter aviation regiments;
- three to six radio technical brigades (regiments);
- one separate radio reconnaissance regiment (radio regiment of special designation - spetsnaz);
- two to three separate jamming radio technical battalions (separate radio technical battalions of special designation - spetsnaz);
- signal centers;
- engineer units;
- chemical protection units;
- rear service installations.

The air defense army is assigned an area of action, the boundaries of which are specified by the general staff.


 
 

Organization of Air Defense


Organization of air defense by the air defense army is part of the preparation of strategic operations in TVDs to repel enemy air strikes and to protect designated targets and areas. Organization of air defense includes the following measures:
- making decisions on air defense;
- assigning missions to air defense forces and means;
- planning air defense by the air defense army;
- deploying air defense forces, establishing groupings of air defense troops, preparing for combat actions, and maintaining constant readiness to repel enemy air attacks;
- organizing air defense cover by fighter aviation;
- organizing coordination (interaction);
- organizing troops control;
- organizing all-around supporting measures including the preparation of air defense guided rockets.


 
 

Principles for Organizing Coordination (interaction) of the Air Defense Army With Air Defense Forces and Fighter Aviation of Fronts (Military Districts)


The air defense army conducts air defense inside its operational area and interacts with several military districts. Coordination (interaction) with one front is conducted by one large unit of the air defense army.
During peacetime interaction between them is conducted through coordinated joint action in one area. At the beginning of the attack, when a separate front's air defense system is established, interaction between them is conducted through coordinated actions in separate areas.

In both cases they interact in the following:
- repulsing enemy initial massive strikes;
- covering forces of military districts during their movement;
- reinforcing air defense of communication routes.

The coordination (interaction) of the air defense army and military districts (fronts) while repulsing enemy initial strikes in one area produces decisive impacts on repulsing enemy attacks. During this action the following questions must be resolved:
- determining methods for conducting reconnaissance and mutual warning about the enemy;
- coordinating methods for covering targets by joint actions;
- specifying and assigning (distributing) lines of commitment for fighter aviation into combat;
- specifying methods of coordination (interaction) between fighter aircraft and air defense rockets;
- methods of control of air defense troops in repulsing enemy initial massive strikes.

Reconnaissance of the enemy is organized by all forces and means. Special attention is given to radio and radar reconnaissance. Radar reconnaissance is conducted by elements of the air defense army. Front radars may also deploy in a covered (closed) status.

Warning about the aerial enemy is conducted in the following ways:
- in a centralized method from the air defense army's (air defense large units) command posts;
- in a decentralized method from command posts of radio technical units.

Radio receivers are established at front command posts to receive reconnaissance information.

Front air defense rocket and artillery means cover their assigned targets and supplemented the air defense system of the air defense army. Their areas and targets are specified at the beginning of the war. Interaction in their combat actions during enemy strikes from several directions is established in a way to distribute their efforts (actions) to separate directions. In this case troops to operate in first-echelon and those to operate in second-echelon are also specified.

If enemy attacks come from one direction efforts of air defense forces and means are conducted in one direction.

Concentration and distribution of efforts of interacting forces are basically determined by fighter aviation. Therefore, actions of front fighter aircraft and the air defense army must be coordinated so that the following are specified:
- assigned troops;
\ - directions of actions;
- lines;
- control;
- direction (guidance) of aircraft to targets;
- others.

The method of interaction between air defense forces and fighter aviation is specified by single areas (in one area).

Since there are Strela-2M rockets in the units, during actions of fighter aircraft at low altitudes, actions must be coordinated with air defense units.

Commanders of air defense large units are responsible for interaction between fighter aviation and air defense rocket units. They must have the authority to assign missions to fronts on related air defense issues and may distribute targets. When actions are conducted in separate areas, responsibility for establishing interaction is borne by the following:
- front's chief of air defense;
- front fighter aviation division commander;
- front air army's deputy commander.

During organization of interaction a unified troop control of combat system is established. Control of combat actions of interacting forces is conducted from command posts of air defense armies (air defense army's large unit). Overall control is conducted by the front commander.


 
 

Planning Coordination (Interaction) of the Air Defense ArmyWith Adjacent Air Defense Formations and With Military Districts (Fronts) and Fleets

Planning is the most important p,art of organizing interaction. Its principle aim is to coordinate methods and forms of actions of various formations of armed forces. This is done in the interest of destroying the aerial enemy. Interaction of the air defense army with other formations of national air defense forces are conducted by the commander-in-chief of the national air defense forces. He issues instructions on interaction to each one of them.

Planning interaction between the air defense army with the military district (front) and fleet is conducted by their related staffs. The initial data (the basis) for planning are the instructions of the following:
- general staff;
- instructions of main commands of national air defense forces;
- main command of naval forces;
- decision of related commanders.

When the air defense army conducts interaction with several fronts, a separate plan of interaction is worked out for each one of them.


 
 

Written Part of the Plan

The plan of interaction is prepared in written form with map or diagram (scheme) annexes. The written part of the plan reflects the following:
- missions of interacting troops;
- composition of interacting forces and means;
- organizing interaction;
- controlling interacting forces;
- organizing support of interacting forces and means.


 
 

Graphic Part of the Plan

In the graphic part of organizing interaction the following issues are specified:
- reconnaissance of the enemy;
- warning and mutual information about the situation;
- methods of joint action in covering front (fleet) forces in their permanent garrisons;
- methods of joint action in repulsing the initial massive strike of the aerial enemy;
- methods of joint actions in covering troops during their deployment and at departure (FUP) areas;
- organizing joint actions while conducting offensive operations.

 
 

Map of Interaction

On the map of interaction the following are reflected:
- main directions of actions of aerial enemies, composition, and character of his actions;
- boundaries of interacting formations within which interaction is conducted;
- groupings and compositions of forces involved in interactions;
- targets to be covered;
- command posts, guidance (direction) [points, boundaries (limits) of radar operation (ranges) areas;
- fire areas (sectors) of air defense rocket units;
- line of commitment for fighter aircraft into combat;
- areas of combat patrolling for fighter aviation in the air.

The plan is signed by the chief of staff and it is approved by the front commander and the commander of the air defense army.


 
 

V. ORGANIZATION OF AIR DEFENSE OF SEABORNE ASSAULT FORCES DURING THEIR MOVEMENTS IN THE SEA AND IN ITS COMBAT DURING LANDINGS

 
 

Air Defense of Seaborne Assault Forces During Movements in the Sea

Air defense is organized to cover seaborne assault forces against enemy air strikes. Air defense is provided by air defense forces and means of ships and seaborne assault forces. They interact with assigned front and national air defense forces fighter aviation. Seaborne assault detachments constitute major targets of enemy air strikes. Air defense of seaborne assault forces are conducted in the following forms:
- direct air defense of each group or detachment;
- area air defense of all moving formations of seaborne assault forces.

Area air defense is established by creating a unified mobile air defense area, as well as, by creating a unified fixed (not mobile) air defense area. The former air defense system moves on-board ships while the later air defense system provides air defense cover during embarkation of ships, during movements in the sea and during landing of seaborne assault forces.

Reconnaissance of the aerial enemy during movements in the sea are conducted by radar means of the following:
- ships of seaborne assault forces;
- surface ships;
- radar aircraft;
- helicopters (AWACS).

For this purpose three to four ships are deployed in a 180 degree sector. If enemy aircraft operate at low and lower altitudes, then radar ships move at a distance of 100-150 km in front of the seaborne assault forces. When simultaneous use of radar helicopters is made this distance will be 50-100 km.

The principle air defense means are ships air defense means, air defense means of seaborne assault forces such as the following:
- 57mm antiaircraft guns;
- ZSU-23-4s;
- Strela-2Ms;
- antiaircraft machine guns.

Fighter aviation is employed to fight enemy aircraft on approach routes. Fighter aircraft accomplish their missions by patrolling in the air. These areas are selected on the basis of the likely direction of enemy air strikes.


 
 

Air Defense of Seaborne Assault Forces during Combat on Landings

Air defense of seaborne assault forces during landing is conducted by joint actions of all air defense forces and means allocated for the operation. One of the most difficult and decisive phases of seaborne assault operations is the landing phase. The enemy in this phase will employ all his available forces to prevent landing of seaborne assault forces.

Air defense during the conduct of landing is conducted by a unified fixed area air defense system. For this purpose ships equipped with air defense means are assigned maneuver areas. From these areas they support seaborne assault forces against enemy air strikes. in addition to this ships with air defense means are assigned to the flanks. Therefore, an area air defense system is created which prevents enemy air strikes on seaborne assault forces. During the landing all air defense means of ships must be at the highest combat-readiness. During landing of seaborne assault forces, special air defense ships position themselves close to shores and support combat of seaborne assault forces on the coast.

Fighter aviation, from the state of patrolling in the air intercept enemy aircraft before they launch their attacks. Patrolling areas of fighter aviation in the air are designated on likely directions of attacks of aerial enemies. After enemy air defense means are suppressed, fighter aircraft may conduct air patrols over friendly forces. Moreover, independent search and destroy operations by fighter aircraft are conducted to destroy the aerial enemy.

The surveillance of the aerial enemy is conducted on threatened directions by the following:
- radar aircraft (AWACS);
- helicopters;
- radar ships.


As seaborne assault forces land, their organic and attached air defense means land as well. They take positions on the shores and continue to support the landed forces. Fighter aviation is moved to airfields seized from the enemy. Initially air defense of landing areas and subsequently, air defense of all important targets and all-around defense is organized.


Air defense of seaborne assault forces on the shore are conducted by the following:
- its organic and attached air defense means;
- fighter aviation;
- air defense means of ships.

In the areas of combat actions a unified system of air defense by rocket and antiaircraft means is established. The air defense system is expanded as more enemy territory is seized. Reconnaissance is conducted by organic radar means and special radars attached to support the operation.

 

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