SOVIET VOROSHILOV ACADEMY LECTURES
FRONT OPERATIONS

I. Role and Place of the Front in Strategic Operations in TSMAs

Aim of the Offensive Operation and Missions of the Front

In future wars the strategic missions in TSMAs will be resolved, as in the past, by combined efforts of operational formations, formations of the different services of the armed forces, and various arms in the context of strategic operations. They will be conducted with nuclear weapons, or by the employment of conventional means only. At the same time, war also may be initiated with the use of only conventional weapons and develop subsequently into a nuclear confrontation.
Normally, several fronts will participate in strategic missions. Offensive operations of fronts will constitute the main component of the strategic operation. The role of the front, i.e. the extent of its contribution to the destruction of the enemy's armed forces in the strategic operation in the TSMA, depends on the following:
- aim and combat mission of the front in the offensive operation;
- composition of the front;
- scope of the operation (depth, width, duration, speed of advance);
- relationship of the front's action to the aim and mission of the operation.

Moreover, the impact of the front's offensive operation on enemy actions, and the front's actions to destroy groupings of enemy forces (main groupings or other groupings, principal enemy forces or allies in the TSMA, etc.), along with the likely outcome of the front operation in terms of aim, time, and space, are factors which influence the role of the front in the strategic operation.

In strategic operations conducted with nuclear weapons the front must destroy the enemy's main forces. It should completely destroy surviving groupings of the enemy and must destroy enemy groupings in the depths of the TSMA that have not been hit by strategic nuclear strikes.

In modern times a strategic operation is normally conducted with nuclear weapons. In strategic operations conducted with the use of only conventional means the front plays an important role in the destruction of enemy armed forces in the TSMA.

In operations conducted with conventional means the front is required to destroy all enemy forces to the entire depth of its operational missions.

The front plays a very important role in actions leading to the accomplishment of the mission, such as individual operations to seize important objectives and strategic regions or the entire territory of the enemy. The front, as a large operational formation, has all types of combat and combat support arms in its composition, and sometimes it has units and formations of other services (types) of armed forces. Therefore, the front possesses all required forces and means for the conduct of the aforementioned actions.

The place of the front in offensive operations in the TSMA depends on its location in the strategic formation (deployment) of the forces. The front can conduct operations in the context of first or second offensive operations (in first or second strategic echelons in the TSMA).

The offensive operation of the first-echelon front has a direct and sometimes decisive effect on the success of the strategic operation. The accomplishment of the operations of first-echelon fronts leads to the destruction of the enemy's main strategic groupings in the TSMA, including the following:
- nuclear missiles;
- tactical aircraft;
- supreme command;
- reserves;
- air defense aviation;
- communication zones.

When the front operates in the first-echelon, depending on the concept of the strategic operation, it can conduct the offensive operation on the direction of the main attack or on axes in the center or on the flanks of the strategic groupings of forces in the TSMA.
The second operational echelon normally moves to the TSMA from the interior of the country. The front in this echelon is normally committed in the direction of the main attack to develop the success of the strategic operation or to accomplish the strategic operation in a short time.

The front offensive operation can be conducted in various TSMAs and under different conditions (in different situations), such as the following:
- naval directions, in coordination with naval forces;
- mountainous areas;
- mountainous-jungle areas;
- deserts;
- northern (arctic) areas.

The conduct of the offensive operation will have its own particular characteristics depending on the characteristics of the situation in each TSMA. In every situation the front is assigned the aim of the operation and mission. The aim and mission may vary depending on the factors involved. The following factors primarily (mostly) affect the aim of the operation and missions of the front:
- political aim (objective) of the war;
- concept of strategic operations in the TSMA;
- composition of the front;
- enemy groupings of forces and the nature (character) of his likely action.

The political aim of the war emerges directly from the state's politics (policy). War is the continuation of politics by other means, particularly by forceful means. State politics determines not only the general aim of the war, but also directly influences the process of determining the aim and concept of strategic operations, as well as the aim and missions of the front operation.

During the process of determining the aim and mission of front offensive operations the following elements are closely examined and assessed:
- deployment of enemy forces in the TSMA;
- foreign and domestic policy of each enemy nation and enemy allies located in the area of the front's offensive operation;
- differences among enemy nations, such as economic, territorial, and other differences and disputes.

The content of the aim of the front operation is also affected by the international duty and commitments and liberating missions of the Soviet armed forces.

The concept of the strategic operation directly affects the aim of the front strategic operation. In the aim of the operation the front considers the following:
- what enemy groupings must be destroyed, in what sequence, and what form;
- what enemy territory must be seized, and when.

The composition, grouping, and degree of readiness of the enemy forces in different TSMAs, and on each direction, might be different. For instance, in the Western TSMA the main groupings of NATO armed forces include the following:
- ground forces with nuclear weapons;
- tactical aircraft;
- many naval formations.

All of these forces are prepared, equipped, and trained to conduct decisive actions. They are prepared for maneuverability during combat operations under various conditions, with or without the use of nuclear weapons. The destruction of enemy allied forces requires specific superiority of forces and means, as well as extremely wise and effective artfulness from the Warsaw Bloc forces. It must be noted that the potential enemy in this theater has enormous capacity and capability for mobilization. Moreover, the enemy can reinforce its forces in this theater by maneuvering forces from other strategic directions and moving forces from other continents. The enemy posture in other TSMAs will be different in terms of structure, organization, technical equipment, degree of combat-readiness, and character of actions. The characteristics of the enemy's composition in the theater and in the directions of the attack definitely affect the aim of the operation and the nature of the missions of the front.

Combat capability and field (combat) training of the front's troops, their operational formation (deployment), morale of the personnel, material supply level, physical and geographic characteristics of the TSMA, significance and dimensions of the theater, and other factors will greatly influence the aim of the operation and the content of the mission.

Aim of the Front Offensive Operation

Some of the aims of the front offensive operation are as follows:
- destruction of enemy groupings of rocket-nuclear means;
- destruction of ground and air forces;
- foiling enemy mobilization actions;
- seizure of important territorial areas;
- ousting of certain enemy ally nations from the war.

The aim of the offensive operation must be the same for operations with or without the use of nuclear weapons.

The aim of the offensive operation with the use of nuclear weapons is achieved by the following:
- nuclear strikes of rocket troops and front aviation, combined with the strikes of conventional weapons, on important targets in the groupings of enemy nuclear means, ground and air forces, and other enemy targets;
- timely exploitation by the front's forces of the results (impacts) of the strikes of strategic nuclear forces, as well as quick and continuous attacks of front forces.

The aim of the front offensive operation with the use of conventional weapons only is achieved through employing all firepower means, such as artillery and air forces, to destroy successively enemy groupings, along with decisive attacks by the front's operational formations and formations, as well as through constantly expanding strikes against the enemy and developing attacks in assigned directions.

To achieve the specific aims of the offensive operation, the front is assigned a mission during the initial nuclear strike, an immediate mission, and a subsequent mission.

Contents of the Mission During the Initial Nuclear Strike

It includes the destruction of the following:
- enemy operational-tactical means;
- enemy's main grouping;
- air force and air defense troops;
- important command posts;
- rear service (logistics) installations (targets).

The Supreme High Command may instruct the front on the depth of the front's initial nuclear strike and specify the boundary between strategic nuclear strikes and front nuclear strikes.

Content of the Immediate Mission of the Front

The contents of the immediate (blizhaishchai) mission of the front are the following:
- destruction of enemy nuclear weapons;
- destruction of his tactical air force;
- seizure of areas and vital targets.

These steps will destroy the operational stability of enemy defenses and the bases of his aviation forces. This will create favorable conditions for the front rapidly to develop the attack to the depth of the TSMA. The depth of the front's immediate mission can be 250-350 km or more.

Contents of Long-range (Dalneshi) Missions of the Front

The contents of the long-range (dalneshi) mission of the front are the following:
- destruction of newly-detected enemy nuclear weapons;
- destruction of enemy deep reserves;
- seizure of objectives and areas in the depth of enemy territory, the occupation of which will facilitate the achievement of the aims of the operation. The depth of the long-range mission depends on the overall depth of the operation and can be 350-500 km.

Depending on the situation and the content of the immediate and long-range missions of the front, the following seizures can be made:
- political and administrative centers;
- national capitals;
- vital industrial areas;
- with the cooperation of other fronts, knock-out individual enemy allies in the TSMA.

During coastal operations the contents of front missions will include the following:
- destruction of coastal groupings of enemy forces;
- seizure of peninsulas;
- seizure of straits;
- seizure of naval ports (bases);
- seizure of other important targets on the coast;
- establishment of defenses on occupied coasts as forces move deeper into enemy territory.

During the conduct of offensive operations in mountainous areas, particular importance is given to destroying individual groupings of enemy forces deployed in areas leading to road junctions (centers of road communications), mountain passes, defiles, and other vital targets. Seizure of these areas will provide friendly forces with vital outlets and openings to emerge into wide valleys, plains, and vast open areas.

Scope of the operation:

Principal indices of the dimensions of offensive operations are the following:
- depth of the operation;
- width of the operation;
- speed of the attack;
- duration of the operation.

The front offensive operation will have the following dimensions depending on the military and political aims of the strategic operation, availability of forces and means of the front, groupings of enemy forces, conditions in the TSMA, and other factors:
- depth: 600-800 km or more;
- average speed of attack: 40-60 km per day;
- during attacks against enemy prepared defenses: 25-30 km per day, increasing to 60-70 km per day during development of the attack; - duration of the attack: 12-15 days;
- width of front of the area of attack: 300-400 km.

Composition of the Front

The composition of the front is determined in accordance with the aim of the operation and the mission of the front in the operation.
As the experience of the great patriotic war indicates, the main factor in determining the combat composition of the front is the need for sufficient troops and means to accomplish assigned missions. This would provide for establishment of the required superiority of forces and means over the enemy, particularly in the direction of the main attack, and the capability to expand the effect in the course of the operation.

A modern front is composed of the following:
- three to four armies, including tank armies;
- three to five reserve divisions (separate divisions);
- one air army (two to three fighter aviation divisions, one to two fighter-bomber aviation divisions, one bomber aviation division);
- one to two rocket (SSM) brigades;
- one artillery division;
- antitank artillery units;
- air defense rocket units;
- artillery units and formations;
- other combat support troops and services.

Depending on the front's missions, an airborne division can be attached to conduct airborne assault actions.

Given the above composition of the front, it will have the following forces and means:
- 22-25 divisions, including 8-10 tank divisions;
- 160-180 surface-to-surface operational-tactical and tactical rocket launchers;
- 4,100-5,700 artillery pieces and mortars;
- 6,200-7,100 tanks;
- Over 2,000 antitank artillery guns and guided missile systems;
- 6,200-7,000 APCs and BMPs;
- 600-800 combat aircraft, including 400-500 with nuclear capability.

The composition of the front provides for the establishment of a strong and powerful striking group of forces in a short time. The conduct of the offensive operation with decisive aims, in great depth, and at a high speed of advance is also provided for.

On the basis of this composition, the front can concentrate, for the initial nuclear strike, 250-330 nuclear delivery means, including 100-130 operational-tactical and tactical missile launchers, and 150-200 aircraft with nuclear capability. By using these means the front can destroy in its sector during the initial nuclear strike the following enemy forces:
- all disclosed nuclear means;
- 10-12 divisions;
- nuclear munitions depots;
- command posts of corps, armies, and groups of armies;
- important warning, guidance, and control centers of air defense forces;
- inflict losses on tactical aircraft on the airfields;
- suppress the bulk of air defense rocket systems.

In terms of concentration of artillery pieces, the front can conduct, in areas designated for penetration (udar-blow), on a total frontage of 27-30 km, 90-110 artillery pieces and mortars per kilometer of front. In terms of tanks the front can concentrate in penetration areas of motorized rifle divisions 40-50 tanks per kilometer of front. This figure increases to 60-70 tanks per kilometer of front in the penetration area of the tank army.

On the basis this calculation, the density of forces and means insures the establishment of the required superiority of forces and means over the enemy and the successful accomplishment of assigned missions, even without the use of nuclear weapons.

The air defense means of the front are meant to resolve satisfactorily and reliably all tasks related to the repulse of enemy air sorties at all altitudes.

The effectiveness of the air defense means organic to units and sub-units must also be taken into consideration. The front's air defense forces and means are capable of destroying 15-20% of total enemy aircraft participating in a massive air strike while repelling it.

In assessing the combat capabilities of the front, the decisive role of the men, their morale and psychological status, and their aggressive advantages must be taken into account. Obviously, high morale constitutes an important factor in the assessment of the combat capability of the troops. The missions of the operation are accomplished ultimately by using weapons and combat equipment. Therefore, we continue to emphasize the following:
- high troop morale;
- troop sustainability;
- unshakable resolution;
- strong will to achieve victory;
- high combat (field) training.

The aforementioned have and will continue to constitute the pillars of success and achievement of victory.

II. Preparation of the Front Offensive Operation

Conditions and Contents of the Preparation for Offensive Operation

Preparation of the front's offensive operation is a collection of measures taken by the commander, staff, chiefs of combat and combat support arms and services, political organs, and rear service troops and organs on organization, planning, and all-around support of the operation.

The important (main) measures for preparation of the front offensive operation are as follows:
- making the decision and planning the operation;
- conveying missions to the troops and organization of coordination (interaction);
- preparing attack staging areas (eskhodnie rayoni), command posts, and signal communications systems;
- procuring (collection) and stockpiling (dumping) of material supplies;
- organizing and conducting of political affairs;
- organizing of all types of supporting measures and troop control for the operation;
- preparing troops for combat action under whatever different conditions (circumstances) may prevail at the outbreak of war;
- maintaining constant high combat-readiness of troops for the conduct of assigned missions.

The initial data constituting the basis for preparation of the offensive operation are the following:
- aim of the operation and missions of the front specified in the directive of the general staff;
- actual (concrete) composition of troops and means;
- assessment and evaluation of all information about the situation.

The front prepares its initial offensive operation to be initiated at the outset of the war in advance during peacetime. The front conducts preparation of subsequent operations during the war, in the course of accomplishing missions in the preceding operation. All measures connected with the preparation of the offensive operation must be carried out with strict observance of secrecy and safeguarding secrets of the concept of the operation.

Making the Decision

The decision of the front commander for the offensive operation constitutes the basis for all measures related to the preparation and conduct of the operation. The front commander must concentrate all of his talent, ability, and art to make a decision that will be rational in all aspects. This is achieved only through a clear understanding of the concept of the superior commander, a close and accurate study of the aims and missions of the front's operation, all-around assessment and evaluation of the situation, and conducting operational forecasting.

Clarification of the Mission

Clarification of the mission includes an understanding of the following:
- proper and accurate understanding of the aim and missions of the front offensive operation;
- role and place of the front in the strategic operation in the TSMA;
- missions of adjacent fronts, and operational formations, and formations of other services of the armed forces and conditions of interaction with them.

Assessment of the Situation

The estimate of the situation includes assessment of the following:
- enemy forces;
- friendly forces, including adjacents;
- terrain and geographic situation;
- radiation, chemical, and biological situation;
- national and class composition of the population in the area of operations, their status and economic relationship with friendly forces;
- economic situation;
- hydrometerologic situation, weather, season, and day and night astronomical data.

During the assessment of each one of these factors, the front commander evaluates to what extent these factors affect the accomplishment of the missions. He determines the optimum form of the employment of his troops and means, consistent with the assessment of the situation.

During the assessment of the enemy the front commander must evaluate enemy capability in the use of nuclear and conventional weapons. He should disclose the composition and grouping of the enemy forces, likely intentions, concept and character of the enemy's actions, and enemy weak and strong points.

Assessment of friendly forces must include evaluation of the following:

-- - combat composition and operational situation of the operational formations and formations;
-- - status and strength level (personnel, equipment) of the operational formations and other formations;
-- - availability and time of delivery of nuclear rounds and rockets;
-- - situation and status of rear services;
-- - characteristics of the action of adjacents and conditions of coordination with them.

Other factors of the situation are assessed in connection with the nature and characteristics of operational missions.
Operational decisions are made at the conclusion of the clarification of the mission and all-around assessment of all factors of the situation.
The front commander specifies the following points in his decision for the offensive operation:
--- - concept of the operation and, accordingly, the tasks, targets, and method for use of nuclear weapons;
--- - missions of combined arms and tank armies (corps), rocket and artillery troops, air defense troops, air army, airborne formations, assault airborne units, various types of reserves, and, during operations along the coastline, missions of seaborne assault troops.

Moreover, the front commander specifies important issues to be included in the organization of coordination (interaction), supporting measures of the operation, and troop controls.

Concept of the Operation

The basic elements of the concept of the operation are the following:

--- the main groupings of enemy forces and the forms of their destruction;
--- direction of the main attack;
-- - direction of other supporting attacks;
-- - operational formation of the forces (operational deployment for the operation).

In modern times all of these issues must be determined in close consideration with achieving the following missions:

-- - repulse of possible enemy invasion;
-- - destruction of confronting enemy forces;
-- - achievement of the aim of the operation with or without the use of nuclear weapons.

Selecting of the direction of the main attack and other attack directions (supporting attacks) along with determining the number of attacks and the method of concentration of effort of the troops are some of the most crucial issues addressed in formulating the concept of the operation. |

The number of attacks (strikes, blows) in front offensive operations is determined by the capability of the front to establish decisive superiority over friendly forces and means on the specified directions of the attack. Given the composition and combat capability of the front in contemporary times, it can often launch attacks on two directions (axes) during the initial offensive operation. Sometimes it can attack on three directions. One of these directions will be the direction of the main attack. The main effort is concentrated on destroying enemy groupings of forces and seizing vital enemy areas in the direction of the main attack.

The direction of the main attack is normally specified to the depth of the immediate mission and, sometimes, to the entire depth of the operation.

Directions of other attacks (supporting attacks) are determined in support of the main attack and destruction of the main enemy groupings. Launching an attack on supporting directions insures their piecemeal destruction.

The front establishes groupings of forces and means on the direction of supporting attacks that are capable of establishing on their own the required superiority over the enemy leading to his destruction at high speed, with or without nuclear weapons.

In operations conducted with nuclear weapons the destruction of enemy groupings, including his nuclear weapons, is generally achieved by use of nuclear weapons. Therefore, the need for superiority over the enemy and dense concentrations of artillery, tanks, and infantry troops on the specific directions of the attacks will not arise. However, in resolving combat missions during offensive operations without nuclear weapons, establishment of a density of forces and superiority over the enemy in conventional weapons is required. In determining the directions of the main and supporting attacks, as well as in the establishment of the groupings for front forces, the need to create conditions for enemy destruction, not only with nuclear weapons, but without the employment of the nuclear weapons, must be taken into close consideration.

The establishment of superiority in troops and means over the enemy obviously entails concentration of forces and means in relatively narrow sectors of the front. This makes them dangerously vulnerable because they are easy targets for enemy nuclear weapons. In order to curb the likelihood of sustaining losses in the face of enemy fire, the following must be done:

-- - friendly strike groupings are dispersed across the front and in depth;
-- - FUP areas of the troops must be fortified by engineer works;
-- - troops must be camouflaged;
-- - personnel and combat equipment must be sheltered in covered positions.

The movement of front forces for the attack must be conducted from dispersed positions in the FUP area (departure area for the attack--staging area). They must deploy for the attack from the line of march as they approach enemy lines. Dense groupings of forces are created only during the conduct of the penetration (breakthrough) of the enemy defenses by moving units and formations from dispersed assembly areas along converging directions to narrow sectors of penetration. As the area of penetration expands in the depth of enemy defenses, such dense groupings rapidly disperse to the flanks and advance at high speed to the interior of enemy defenses.

Operational Formation of the Front

The operational formation of front forces for the offensive operation is established on the basis of, and in compliance with, requirements of the missions assigned to the front. It must comply with the concept of the operation. The formation's design must insure that the front can establish striking groupings and constantly expand its efforts in the directions of attack.

In offensive operations the front normally deploys its operational formation in two echelons and also has combined arms reserves. Other elements of the front operational formation include:

-- - air defense troops;
-- - front air force;
-- - airborne assault troops;
-- - seaborne assault troops (during the attack in naval directions);
-- - various other reserves.

The front's first-echelon includes combined arms and tank armies. However, when the combat action is conducted without nuclear weapons, the tank army is better kept in the second- echelon.

Missions

Missions of front forces are assigned in accordance with the concept of the operation. During the assignment of missions to first-echelon armies, the following points are specified:

-- - combat composition, attached and supporting means;
-- - direction of the main attack;
-- - immediate and long-range missions;
-- - number of nuclear and conventional rounds to be used;
-- - enemy targets in the army's sector which are to be destroyed by front nuclear delivery means;
-- - missions of adjacent armies, method of coordination (interaction) with them, and boundaries with adjacents;
-- - deployment of command posts.

The immediate mission of the army can be the destruction of enemy first operational echelon forces (main forces of enemy first-echelon corps and the enemy's immediate reserves). The depth of the immediate mission of the army can be 100-150 km or more.

The long-range mission of the army is destruction of enemy troops, reserves, and seizure of areas, the attainment of which will insure the achievement of the aim of the operation. The depth of army long-range missions can be 150-200 km beyond the immediate mission.

Front rocket troops are assigned the following:

-- - targets to be destroyed during initial massive nuclear strikes;
-- - number and yield of nuclear weapons to be used against each target, type of explosion, time of readiness for fire (launch), and preparation and time of delivery of nuclear and conventional warheads;
-- - measures to preserve constant combat-readiness of rocket troops for delivery of nuclear strikes;
-- - method and time of deployment of rocket troops for the initiation of the operation and their movement and relocation during the operation.

During assignment of missions to artillery, the groupings of the artillery, method of the conduct of the preparatory fire, assault support fire, and artillery missions during the conduct of the operation must be specified.

The air army is assigned the following:

-- - missions during the initial nuclear strikes of the front;
-- - missions during participation in the strategic air operation to destroy enemy groupings of air forces in the TSMA and establishment of air supremacy (if such an operation is to be conducted);
-- - missions during attack preparatory and assault support fire;
-- - distribution of sorties to missions

The second-echelon army of the front is assigned the following:

-- - area of concentration (deployment) in the FUP (staging area) and method of its occupation and improvement with engineer works to insure covered accommodation of the troops;
-- - areas of responsibility to resist enemy airborne assault troops, enemy reconnaissance, and spies;
-- - form of movement at the beginning of the attack;
-- - areas or lines of commitment into combat, the direction of the attack (blow), and possible missions;
-- - supporting means to be attached to the army during its commitment into combat and targets to be destroyed by front nuclear delivery means and front aviation in the sector of army attacks.

Air defense troops are assigned the following:

-- - which groupings of forces and rear service installations to cover with the main effort of the air defense at the beginning and during the conduct of the operation;
-- - method of repelling enemy air strikes;
-- - method of coordination (interaction) with fighter aviation, national air defense operational formations and other formations;
-- - composition of duty (Dejurnie) troops and means;
-- - method of deployment of air defense formations and units at the beginning of the operation and their maneuver during the operation.

Airborne assault troops is assigned the following:

-- - composition of each "Dessant;"
-- - areas, time, and means of landing;
-- - combat missions during actions in the enemy's rear;
-- - method for delivering nuclear and air strikes on enemy targets in drop zones, landing areas, and areas of "Dessant's" combat action;
-- - coordination (interaction) with air force and front forces attacking from the front;
-- - staging areas, times of occupation, times of preparation of each "Dessant" to be dropped (landed);
-- - organization of command and control.

Seaborne assault troops (when employed) are assigned the following:

-- - composition and missions;
-- - time, place, and method of landing on enemy occupied coasts;
-- - method of support by ships and air forces during the landing and subsequently;
-- - assembly areas, embarkation areas, and the time to prepare for the assault landing;
-- - providing security during embarkation of ships, during movement on the seas, and method of coordination (interaction) with naval forces, rocket troops, air forces, and forces conducting the attack along the naval direction (coastline).

The front commander must specify the following:

-- - composition and missions of front reserves, areas of their deployment, and method of their movement (relocation);
-- - time and place of deployment of command posts and the direction of their advance.

The front commander also specifies the missions and tasks of political affairs and issues instructions on organization and execution of measures related to party and political affairs. Also specified is preparation of personnel for the operation in terms of morale and psychological matters.

In his instructions to the chief of staff and chiefs of combat and combat support arms and services, the front commander specifies the method and sequence for the following:

-- - planning the operation;
-- - dissemination (conveying) missions to subordinates;
-- - organization of coordination (interaction);
-- - measures on maintaining high combat-readiness of the troops;
-- - organization of comprehensive supporting measures;
-- - troop control.

Planning the Operation

Planning is an important component of preparation, which insures the following:

-- - unified and proper direction for the conduct of the operation;
-- - clear perspective and consistency in combat actions;
-- - effective and wise employment of forces and means;
-- - efficient use of material and technical supplies;
-- - resources for successful accomplishment of the mission and achievement of the aim of the operation.

Planning the operation is conducted by the front staff on the basis of the front commander's decision and his instructions. During planning all issues and details of the commander's decisions are thoroughly organized as follows:

-- - sequence and form of execution of each operational mission;
-- - effort of troops and consumption of supplies in each mission and on each direction of the attack;
-- - method of coordination (interaction) among the troops during the mission;
-- - issues relating to political and party affairs;
-- - combat support measures;
-- - troop control.

Planning the offensive operation is conducted in terms of the front's missions. This means that the planning activity itself is organized in the time phase sequence of the operation. This sequence considers in turn the method for accomplishing the mission to deliver the initial nuclear strike, the immediate mission, and then the long-range mission with or without nuclear weapons.

The method of action of troops and means during the conduct of the immediate mission is planned in greater detail than the long-range mission. The most detailed planning concentrates on the actions of the troops and means during the first days of the operation. The method of conduct of the long-range mission is planned in general terms (approximate terms).

During the planning of the initial nuclear strike, the method for destruction of detected enemy nuclear delivery means is calculated to inflict decisive losses on enemy troops, his air force, air defense means, and command posts. Other targets within the area of the front's offensive operation are also determined. The initial nuclear strikes against enemy targets are planned up to the boundary line of strikes of strategic nuclear forces, which is located 250 km or farther from the front line (FLOT). The possibility of planning the delivery of strikes on enemy targets in the entire depth of the front is not excluded.

During the planning of the initial strike the number of nuclear weapons (rounds) to be used against each designated target is calculated and specified. During this process the following points are specified:

-- - which formations (units) deliver strikes against which targets;
-- - center of each explosion;
-- - number and yield of nuclear rounds to be used on each target;
-- - altitude of air bursts;
-- - security distance between friendly troops and the center of nuclear bursts.

During the planning of the initial nuclear strike the graphics of its conduct are worked out. The main tasks of the nuclear delivery means are specified. Allocation of the nuclear rounds in terms of front missions and operational formations of the front are detailed.

Actions of first-echelon armies are planned in terms of time, lines (area), and form of accomplishment of the immediate and long-range mission. Planning is in a more detailed form for the depth of the front's immediate mission. For the phase of conducting long-range missions of the front, the first-echelon armies are assigned the following:

-- - direction of attack;
-- - seizure of specific lines (areas);
-- - approximate action for destroying the approaching reserves of the enemy as well as the groupings of forces remaining at the end of the operation.

During preparation for offensive operations details like the following are closely considered and thoroughly organized:

-- - movement of troops;
-- - deployment in the FUP areas (staging or departure areas);
-- - engineer work in these areas;
-- - measures to insure timely initiation of the attack by the troops.

Depending on the likely character of enemy actions and likely form of the initiation of the operation, plans to meet these conditions are as follows:

-- - meeting engagements;
-- - penetration (breakthrough) of the enemy's forward defense line;
-- - actions to repel the enemy's likely invasion;
-- - forms of destruction of the enemy's covering troops and his main groupings.

For all of these forms of action, the method of conduct of preparatory fire and deployment of artillery is organized.

While planning the forms of conduct of each one of the missions, the important issues are as follows:

-- - close (fine) designation of the composition of forces (forces allocated);
-- - method of action to inflict losses on enemy nuclear weapons at the beginning and during the attack.

This does not depend on the type of weapons (nuclear or conventional) used in the operation, but is done under any condition.

To destroy rocket systems, nuclear bombers, nuclear weapon depots (stockpiles), nuclear fougasses (mines), and other targets, specific air force and artillery troops are allocated. Actions are launched by reconnaissance and subversion groups, airborne assault troops, and special detachments from motorized rifle and tank troops.

Expecting enemy surprise attacks, the issues regarding coverage of the deployment of the front forces main groupings must be organized in detail while planning the operation. For this purpose the following points are determined:

-- - most likely direction of enemy attack;
-- - composition of troops and means assigned for covering missions (in general and on each likely direction of enemy attack);
-- - lines and areas occupied and held by troops assigned to conduct covering missions, methods of their movements, and conduct of combat actions;
-- - issues regarding support of covering troops by artillery and air force, method of coordination (interaction) of covering troops with border troops and forces of first-echelon armies.

While planning the operation, detailed contents of the action of troops in the entire area of operation in terms of different directions are worked out. The following are also evaluated and assessed:

-- - effectiveness of nuclear and conventional weapons;
-- - required density of artillery, tanks, and infantry battalions in the penetration areas;
-- - structure and required duration of artillery preparatory fire;
-- - form of attack support fire;
-- - capabilities for destroying the aerial enemy;
-- - requirements for air defense means.

Plan of the Offensive Operation

Planning is shown in the plan of the offensive operation. The plan is the formulation of the decision which is marked on the map with written instructions, and necessary calculations and justifications (assessments).

The plan of operation is prepared on the map or worked out in written form with a map annex reflecting the front commander's decision. The plan of offensive operation is worked out by the front's chief of staff or chief of front's operation directorate.

When the plan of the operation is prepared in a graphic form (on the map) it is shown on a 1/500,000 or 1/200,000 scale map. The map-form plan shows the following:

-- - enemy groupings of forces and means and the character of his likely actions;
-- - operational formation (deployment) of the front forces in the FUP (staging--starting) area;
-- - front's immediate and long-range missions, their contents, their depth, time of accomplishment, and speed of attack;
-- - direction of the main and other attacks;
-- - penetration areas to breakthrough enemy defenses;
-- - missions and targets of nuclear weapons during the initial nuclear strike conducted by front rocket troops and the front air army;
-- - the boundary separating areas of nuclear strikes delivered by strategic weapons and front means;
-- - directions of attacks and missions of armies (corps) showing times of their accomplishments and boundaries;
-- - method and form of commitment of second-echelon troops into combat;
-- - composition, missions, areas, and times of dropping (landing) of airborne and seaborne assault troops;
-- - deployment of command posts of the front and armies at the beginning of the operation and their movement (relocation) during the operation;
-- - boundaries with adjacent armies of other fronts and missions of these armies.

Moreover, the scope of the operation is shown on the map.
All other information, calculations, and guiding data are described in written instructions.

Written instructions and details usually include the following:

-- - assessment of the enemy situation, capabilities, and intent;
-- - combat composition of the front and its capabilities;
-- - correlation of forces and means;
-- - aim and concept of the operation;
-- - availability, time of delivery, and distribution of nuclear, special rounds, and material supplies;
-- - distribution of forces and means;
-- - distribution of aircraft sorties among missions and armies;
-- - method of providing security for friendly troops during nuclear strikes;
-- - method of conduct of attack preparatory, supporting fire, and other related instructions.

When the plan of the offensive operation is prepared in written form, the contents and order of their presentation are as follows:

-- - deductions from the clarification of the mission and assessment of the situation;
-- - aim and concept of the operation;
-- - missions and methods of the use of nuclear and conventional means of destruction;
-- - missions of first-echelon armies, missions of second-echelon troops, airborne and seaborne assault troops, reserves, and method of their action;
-- - missions and forms of combat employment of rocket and artillery troops;
-- - missions and methods of combat actions of the air army;
-- - missions of air defense troops and methods of repelling enemy air attacks;
-- - method of coordination (interaction) among troops;
-- - measures for all-around support of the operation;
-- - missions and methods of the conduct of party and political affairs;
-- - organization of troop control and signal communication.

The annexes to the plans of front offensive operations include the following:

-- - plan of the initial strike of the front;
-- - plan for preparation and occupation of the FUP areas for the attack (staging--departure areas);
-- - plan of operational Maskirovka;
-- - plan of employment of airborne (seaborne) assault troops;
-- - other plans and documents;
-- - plan of political affairs.

The chiefs of combat and combat support arms and services and the air army staff prepare plans for combat employment of the combat and combat support arms, combat action of the air army, and plans of all types of combat supporting measures. All of these plans are worked out on the basis of the decision of the front commander.

The plan of the initial nuclear strike is prepared by the operations directorate along with the chief of rocket and artillery troops and the air army staff, under the direct supervision of the chief of staff. The plan is graphically depicted on a 1/500,000 or 1/200,000 scale map with an annex of written instructions and a graphic for launching the initial nuclear strike.

The plan of preparation and occupation of FUP areas by front forces is an important required document. It provides for measures on ensuring activeness and survival of front forces and means against enemy strikes prior to the initiation of the operation and constant readiness of the troops to repel enemy surprise attacks and his invasion, with or without nuclear weapons.

The plan should be prepared on a 1/200,000 scale map with a written annex and a graphic of the arrival of troops at FUP areas. On the map portion of the plan of preparation and occupation of the FUP areas, the following matters are depicted graphically:

-- - location of permanent military posts (assembly areas occupied at the alarm signal by the troops) of formations and headquarters;
-- - FUP areas (staging area and departure areas);
-- - directions of arrival (movement) of troops to FUP areas;
-- - composition of forces and means assigned to cover troops and directions of their approach (movement) to specific covering lines and positions;
-- - system of engineering fortifications at lines, areas, and positions;
-- - areas and lines of establishment of engineer obstacles and demolitions;
-- - other details.

The written portion of the plan includes the following:

-- - assessment of likely enemy actions and the most probable directions of his attack;
-- - composition and mission of covering troops;
-- - mission of troops in the main groupings of forces on repulse of enemy surprise invasions;
-- - principal measures on engineer support in the FUP and approach areas;
-- - engineer troops assigned to conduct such measures;
-- - time and method of arrival (movement) of formations and units to the FUP areas.

A separate graphic of the arrival (movement) of the front's forces and occupation of the FUP area by them can also be prepared.

Contents, form, and preparation of plans of combat employment of rocket and artillery troops, air defense troops, combat actions of the air army, plans of all types of combat support measures, organization of command posts and signal communications, and the plan of political affairs are discussed in the related subjects of instruction.

Planning the front offensive operation is very complicated work in the context of the front's field troop control operation. It requires harmony in action and steady guidance on the part of the chief of staff, the staff, and the front commander.

Planning is based on objective and realistic calculations of the capabilities of friendly and enemy forces. It must be built on forecasts (anticipations) of developments in combat actions and should provide for effective coordination of employment of all troops and means, particularly nuclear weapons.

The major role in organization of the plan of the operation is played by the operations department of the front. The operations department works in close cooperation with the chiefs of combat, combat support arms and services, and staff of the air army.

In order to insure procedural organization in preparing the required data for making the decision, preparing all documents related to the operation, and accomplishment of other necessary tasks, it is recommended that a calendar plan be worked out. Such a plan reflects time of accomplishment and the executing elements involved in conducting all necessary measures. Included are documents of the plan of operation, time to be reviewed by the chief of staff, and time to be approved by the front commander. Calendar plans for preparation of the operation can be prepared graphically (on graph paper).

Preparing the Troops and FUP Areas Prior to the Initiation of Military Action

Along with the decision and working out the plan of operation, a great deal of organizational work, requiring a lot of time, must be conducted by the commander, staff, and field troop control organs of the front. This involves the following:

-- - preparation of generals and officers;
-- - conveying missions to the troops and organization of coordination (interaction) among them;
-- - conduct of reconnaissance;
-- - conduct of combat, political, and operational preparation (training) of the troops and staff;
-- - conduct of engineer work (establishment of engineer fortifications) in the FUP areas;
-- - preparation and deployment of the rear services;
-- - measures on preparation (readiness) of troop control and all-around combat supporting measures, in the interest of troop combat actions during the operation.

During preparation of the initial operation of the front the missions of troops are normally specified in advance during peacetime. The method of conveyance (dissemination) of missions to the executing elements is determined by the general staff. In order to maintain and safeguard secrecy of the concept of future operations only a limited number of staff are briefed on the missions of the troops and then only in matters related to their respective functions. Those will include primarily the chief of staff and chiefs of combat and service departments of the staff. The operational plans of the armies can also be worked out in the military district (group of forces) headquarters. In preparing army operational plans operational groups of the respective armies (group of staff officers), headed by the army commander, can participate with the approval of the general staff.

The army commander will personally receive his missions in the military district (group of forces) headquarters. The summary of front operational directives or plans of the offensive operation of the army are placed in sealed envelopes bearing the seal of the military district (group of forces) headquarters. They are kept and safeguarded in the army commander's safe. These envelopes can only be opened when a designated signal is received or by instructions of the military district (group of forces) commander.

The missions down to the level of commanders of formations and units normally are not conveyed in peacetime. However, operation orders, including the missions of the formations and units (sealed by the military district or group of forces, front, or army) are kept in the personal safes of the commander. They can only be opened by signal or by order of the military district (group of forces) headquarters.

In case of drastic changes in the situation, readjustment and confirmation of missions planned in prepared documents may become necessary. In such cases new missions are assigned. The readiness and preparation of commanders and staff to resolve such issues in a limited time are of particular importance.

Under all conditions, the most important requirements in conveying missions to the troops are:

-- - timely assignment of missions;
-- - brevity and clarity of missions.

The missions must be worded in such a way that misinterpretation, or multi-interpretation are avoided.

Interaction is an important measure in troop preparation. Coordination (interaction) is organized to the entire depth of the operation and is primarily in support of the troops operating in the direction of the main attack. Coordination is organized in more detail for the phase of the initial nuclear strike and for the first day of the attack. Coordination (interaction) for subsequent days during the conduct of the immediate mission is organized relatively in less detail due to difficulties in close assessment of the situation. Coordination (interaction) during the future long-range missions of the front is organized in general (approximate) terms.

In all measures of organization of coordination (interaction) attention is concentrated primarily on subordinates understanding their combat missions and forms of coordination with the forces and means conducting them.

The organization of coordination in the offensive operation must provide for the coordination of the following actions during the accomplishment of assigned missions:

-- - nuclear strikes of front rocket troops and front aviation;
-- - strikes launched by the means of the Supreme High Command and adjacents;
-- - actions of armies and formations organic to the front;
-- - actions of combat and combat support arms and air forces in terms of objectives, times, and places. Action of front air defense troops are coordinated with actions of national air defense forces. The principal measures on establishment of all-around support in the interest of the combat action of the troops must be confirmed.

\ Coordination (interaction) in terms of targets between the strategic rocket forces, long-range aircraft, adjacents and front's means, can be established in three ways. One is by specifying the boundaries to separate the destruction areas of the enemy targets assigned to each one of them. The second is by assigning specific targets to each element in the same area. The third method is a combination of both forms can be used. The form to be used is determined by the general staff.

Coordination (interaction) in the front is established as follows:

-- - among first-echelon armies;
-- - among first- and second-echelon armies of the front;
-- - among formations, operational formations of combined arms, rocket and artillery troops, and the air force;
-- - coordination between rocket troops and the air army of the front;
-- - coordination between the front forces and airborne (seaborne) assault troops;
-- - coordination among front air defense troops and means.

The operation and combat action of the troops are elaborately coordinated during their action, following the initial nuclear strike, and during the conduct of missions.

The following are examples:

-- - destruction of the enemy in the security (covering) zone;
-- - simultaneous actions to seize important areas and major operational targets;
-- - destruction of the enemy in the meeting engagement;
-- - encirclement of the enemy and destruction of an encircled enemy grouping, or his reserves and groupings of forces trying to launch a counterblow (counterattack).

Actions of the troops are elaborately coordinated in terms of objectives, times, and places. In other cases, the combat action of the troops is always thoroughly coordinated in the same way when joint, concerted action is required to accomplish the missions.

Based on the nature and characteristics of the assigned missions and the specific procedure of coordination in the operations.

The following are organized and conducted during peacetime:

-- - combat, political, and operational training;
-- - preparation of troops and staffs.

In contemporary times, great attention is given to preparation of the FUPs (staging, departure, or starting areas) of the troops prior to the initiation of the combat action. This action is a requirement imposed by the facts relating to the high combat-readiness of potential enemy rocket-nuclear weapons, his air force, and ground forces groupings in the Western and other TSMAs, the possibility of a surprise nuclear strike, and the danger of enemy aggression. Advance engineer work and installations at the FUP areas enhance the viability and activeness of the troops. This provides favorable conditions for the repulsion of enemy surprise attacks and for the initiation of the offensive under various circumstances at the outbreak of war.

Preparation of the front troop's FUP areas for attack includes the following:

-- - installation of the FUP areas for first-echelon formations;
-- - deployment areas of second-echelon formations and assembly (deployment) areas of front second-echelon troops and front reserves;
-- - main and alternate position areas of armies and front rocket and artillery troops;
-- - fire and deployment positions of air defense and radio-technical means;
-- - concealed, dirt surface, airfield bases;
-- - deployment areas of special troops (combat support arms);
-- - command posts and signal centers.

In addition to this, during preparation of the FUP areas, the following are also done:

-- - signal communication lines are established;
-- - roads and bridges are developed to facilitate troop movement, supply of materials, and evacuation;
-- - obstacle and demolition areas are prepared on likely directions (axes) of possible enemy attacks.

It is recommended that FUP areas for first-echelon formations (divisions) are prepared 20-40 kilometers from the national border. Therefore, these formations are protected against enemy artillery fire and the possible use of tactical-chemical weapons.

One to five kilometers from the border positions are prepared for covering troops, artillery, and for rocket (SSM) battalions of the first-echelon divisions. They are responsible for supporting the troops by nuclear strikes during the initiation of the attack by friendly forces and also during the repulsion of enemy surprise invasions.

Areas of deployment for second-echelon divisions are prepared at a distance of 60-80 km from the border.

front second-echelon troops and reserves establish their assembly (deployment) areas in order to provide for a dispersed deployment of troops. Formations may be assigned areas of responsibility where the related formations and units must maintain order and discipline among civilian population, or where they must destroy enemy airborne-assault and subversive (sabotage) groups.

The preparation of the FUP areas by troops and means is conducted in full compliance with secrecy and concealment measures. Therefore, it is required that the major part of such actions are conducted in accordance with the operational "Maskirovka" plan.

During peacetime it is not possible to prepare the FUP areas everywhere in advance in terms of engineer work. In this case all matters related to organization of the FUP areas must be conducted, reconnaissance and evaluation of the terrain must be accomplished, and the FUP areas of units and sub-units and the method of their occupation must be specified.

Movement of troops to the FUP areas will be conducted according to special instructions from the supreme commander in chief.

Troops move toward, and enter the FUP areas from their permanent garrisons, from assembly areas occupied after the alarm, or from the exercise areas.

Organization of Combat Support Measures and Troop Control

Combat support measures conducted to aid the combat actions of the troops is one of the main factors in achieving a successful operation. Therefore, these measures must be thoroughly considered and organized in advance.

Types of combat support measures include the following:

--- - reconnaissance;
--- - operational "Maskirovka;"
--- - protection of rear service troops and targets (installations), from mass-destruction weapons;
--- - engineer support;
--- - radio-electronic support;
--- - chemical support;
--- - hydrometeorological support;
--- - topogeodetic support;
--- - rear service support.

Combat support measures for the front offensive operation are organized on the basis of the front commander's decision and his instructions. Actions relating to combat support measures are organized directly under the supervision and leadership of the chief of staff.

The front staff organizes the following:

--- - reconnaissance;
--- - protection of troops and rear service installations from mass-destruction weapons;
--- - radio-electronic combat;
--- - hydrometeorological and topogeodetic support.

The related chiefs of combat support arms and services organize and conduct other types of conduct supporting measures. The chief of staff of the front works out a plan and gives instructions to the troops for each type of combat support measure.

Troop Control

One important element of preparation of the operation is the organization of troop control of the front forces in the operation. This includes planning of the following:

--- - preparation and deployment of the command posts in the FUP areas of the troops;
--- - method of relocation in the course of the operation;
--- - advance preparation of the command posts in terms of engineer work, communication lines, and signal centers;
--- - other measures.

Command posts and signal centers must be capable of ensuring firm, continuous troop control at the following times:

--- - while bringing troops to full combat-readiness;
--- - during movement of troops to, and deployment in, the FUP areas;
--- - while initiating surprise attacks on the enemy;
--- - during repulsion of enemy invasion;
--- - during accomplishment of all other tasks in the operation with, or without, the use of nuclear weapons.

The following command posts are established during the offensive operation of the front:

--- - command posts (KP);
--- - forward command posts (PKP);
--- - rear service control points (TPU);
--- - auxiliary command posts (in some cases);

The signal communication system includes a developed network of communication links of all types main, and auxiliary signal centers. The signal communications system is established so that it insures firm, steady communications with the troops from permanent garrisons and from prepared field command posts of the front and armies. The signal system must provide reliable communications for warning the troops and for communications with troops and means participating in the initial nuclear strike. The system provides communications with troops repelling enemy aggression, as well as with groupings of forces initiating the offensive.

In order to insure a firm, continuous troop control during the offensive operation, the method of relocation of the command posts is planned in advance. A troop control group (Groupa Upravlenie), with signal communication means is established to accompany the front commander during his visits with troops. In connection, efforts are made to avoid a situation in which the front commander and the fronts principal field troop control elements are cut off from the troop control process. Relocation of command posts is initiated when it is necessary that they be closer to the troops to insure a more reliable, effective troop control, or when the location of the command posts is threatened by likely enemy attack and strikes. Relocation of the command posts are conducted with the permission of a superior commander when the new location of the command posts is prepared in terms of engineer work and signal communications.

Maintaining High Combat-Readiness

Constant high combat-readiness of the troops for the accomplishment of combat missions is a general requirement and principal condition insuring the following:

--- - initiation of surprise strikes and blows against the enemy;
--- - repelling enemy strikes from land, air, and sea;
--- - rapid initiation of decisive attacks by front forces.

In contemporary times, the following steps are set for combat-readiness of troops:
--- - constant (routine) combat-readiness;
--- - heightened (increased) combat-readiness;
--- - full combat-readiness.

Constant Combat-Readiness

Constant combat-readiness is the condition in which ground and air forces conduct their routinely planned activities, while formations and units are constantly prepared for conducting missions, and mobilization of multi-degree under-strength formations, units, and installations. In this state of combat-readiness individual units and sub-units conduct duty service and execute missions according to the plan.


Higher (Increased) Combat-Readiness

Higher combat-readiness is a state of the troops from which they can pass over to the state of full combat-readiness in the shortest time.

In this state of combat-readiness all formations and units engaged in off garrison activities such as field exercises, activities in training polygons, and other engagements are called back to take measures to increase combat and mobilization readiness. Duty (on call) troops and means are reinforced and they conduct combat service with full combat-readiness. Officers are called back from leave, vacations, and temporary terms of duty elsewhere. They are all accommodated in the garrison. Moreover, daily duty service and security and defense of important targets (installations) are enhanced by patrols assigned around the garrisons. Protection of troops from mass-destruction weapons is organized.

In the headquarters (staffs) daily duty service by responsible generals and officers and their augmented relieving teams in the command posts and control points are reinforced. Operational groups with signal communication means are dispatched to prepare field command posts.

On the basis of the directive of the minister of defense and the general staff a number of special measures for upgrading combat-readiness of rocket formations and units, under-strength formations and units, and other installations are taken.

All measures taken in support of higher combat-readiness must secretly prepare troops for the conduct of combat missions.

Bringing troops to a state of higher combat-readiness is normally conducted without getting the troops out of their permanent garrisons. However, some formations and units can be moved to previously specified areas.

Full Combat-Readiness

Full combat-readiness is the highest state of readiness for the rapid accomplishment of combat missions.

Bringing troops to a state of full combat-readiness is normally conducted with the troops being warned by combat alert and moved out of their permanent garrisons.

At this state of combat-readiness formations and units are upgraded to wartime strength. Formations and units which are in an under-strength and cadre status, and those that are understaffed are augmented to full strength by supplies from mobilization resources and material reserves at times prescribed by the established plans.

Personnel of formations and units organic to groups of forces and border military districts, are issued ammunition, grenades, gas protective masks, helmets, portable tents, and chemical protective clothes.

In groups of forces and border military districts, the covering troops move to their specific areas and take defensive measures according to the established plans. They will conduct reconnaissance on the ground and in the air space of their area of responsibility.

The air forces are deployed to dispersed locations.

Staffs move to prepared command posts, and control the accomplishment of given instructions.

Bringing troops directly to full combat-readiness without passing through the intermediate state of higher combat-readiness may also be done.

Specific plans pertaining to bringing troops to full combat-readiness are prepared in operational formations, formations, and units. They include measures to be taken and a timetable of accomplishments of all readiness actions.

In contemporary times, sufficient time will not be available, in all cases, to allow for conduct of all measures required for upgrading troops to full combat-readiness. It would be a mistake to assume that a period of tension is a prerequisite to war. War may break out in a total surprise. Basically, all measures bringing the troops to full combat-readiness are assumed in principal to be conducted under circumstances when the war is going to be initiated by surprise. The principal measures ensuring direct transition of the troops from a constant state of combat-readiness to a state of full combat-readiness are as follows:

--- - thoroughly organizing an effective warning system of the troops;
--- - specifying areas to be occupied by troops, after the combat alarm, as FUP areas for conduct of combat missions or mobilization and the method of movement to these areas;
--- - maintaining high combat-readiness of troops during the movement of formations and units to field exercises, polygons, camps, and outside of permanent garrisons;
--- - adjustment and upgrading of weapons, combat equipment, and technical reserves to the state of operational readiness;
--- - organizing mobilization measures;
--- - continuous control of the state of combat-readiness of troops.

Particular attention must be directed at morale, political, and psychological preparation of personnel. High morale of the troops is an important factor determining the character of their combat-readiness and their combat capabilities.

All measures regarding transition of the troops to higher and full combat-readiness must be thoroughly planned and secretly conducted by observing all concealment and "Maskirovka" measures.

III. Conduct of Front Offensive Operations With the use of Nuclear Weapons

The front offensive operation with the use of nuclear weapons is initiated by a nuclear strike. At the time of the initial nuclear strike decisive losses must be inflicted on the enemy throughout the entire depth of the deployment of his forces. Favorable conditions should be provided for the initiation of rapid strikes (blows--attacks) by the troops in accordance with the concept of the operation.

Forms of Conduct of the Offensive Operation

Offensive operations can be conducted in different forms. These are primarily dependant on the following:

--- - types of weapons used in the operation (nuclear or conventional);
--- - groupings and characteristics of enemy actions;
--- - composition of the front's forces;
--- - condition of terrain;
--- - other factors.

Therefore, when we talk about the forms of conduct of the offensive operation, we actually mean the specific methods of the actions of troops and means of the front in achieving the aims of the operation.

In offensive operations with the employment of nuclear weapons, the basis and fundamentals of the forms of the conduct of the operation are constituted by the following:

--- - inflicting decisive losses on the enemy with nuclear weapons;
--- - rapid advances (attacks) of tanks, motorized rifle, and airborne assault troops;
--- - destroying the enemy and rapidly seizing vital areas.

One of the most effective forms of the conduct of offensive operations in contemporary times is inflicting decisive losses on the enemy during the initial and subsequent nuclear strikes. This is accomplished by rapid attacks of troops in coordination with airborne assault troops on the shortest directions leading to the areas providing achievement of the aims of the operations. In this form the main groupings of enemy forces are broken into pieces and destroyed. Destruction of enemy groupings piecemeal creates the following:
--- - favorable conditions for the interruption of enemy operational resistance (viability) and his troop control;
--- - piecemeal destruction of shattered forces;
--- - development of the attack in great depth at high speed.

Another form of conduct of the offensive operation can be a form in which, following the initial nuclear strike, the forces do the following:

--- - attack along converging directions (axes);
--- - encircle and destroy enemy main groupings of forces by front assets or in cooperation with adjacent forces;
--- - develop the attacks to sufficient depths to seize areas which facilitate the achievement of the operational aim.

Under certain circumstances, another form of conduct can be used which develops as follows:

--- - inflicting decisive losses on the enemy by nuclear strikes combined with rapid attacks of front main forces along the shortest directions to the depth of enemy territory;
--- - launching an enveloping blow to the flank and rear of enemy groupings to force them against natural barriers and then destroy them.

This form is used when the offensive operation is conducted along the coastline. In this case the front forces cut enemy coastal groupings of forces and destroy them in cooperation with naval forces. Other forms of conduct may also be used. A combination of different forms can also be employed. For the immediate mission of the front, enemy forces are subjected to decisive losses by nuclear strikes, while the main grouping of front forces attack along converging directions to envelop and destroy the enemy. In this form the long-range missions of the front are accomplished by massive use of nuclear weapons and rapid attacks of troops, on several directions, to destroy deeper enemy reserves and to end the operation successfully.

The forms of destruction of large enemy groupings of forces are dependent on the following:

--- - composition;
--- - operational situation;
--- - character of action of the enemy groupings;
--- - capabilities and situations of friendly forces.

The principal forms of destruction of the enemy groupings with the use of nuclear weapons will consist of the following:

--- - delivery of massive nuclear strikes on enemy groupings;
--- - rapid attacks of the troops;
--- - completion of the destruction of enemy groupings.

When more time is required for preparation of massive nuclear strikes of the front, or when sufficient information about the situation of enemy targets to be hit by nuclear weapons is not available, destruction of enemy groupings of forces are conducted by delivering several successive nuclear group strikes and rapid attacks of the front forces.

The most effective form of destruction of the enemy, particularly groupings of his operational reserves, is the delivery of massive nuclear strikes by as many nuclear rounds as will insure the infliction of sufficient losses on the enemy and completely destroy his combat power.

Delivery of Front Initial Nuclear Strikes and Measures on Restoration of Combat Capabilities of the Front Forces

Initial nuclear strikes can be launched in accordance with variously patterned plans. The strike includes launching prepared rockets and massive flights of aircraft to deliver losses on planned enemy targets.

The initial nuclear strike of the front can be launched simultaneously with the nuclear strike of strategic nuclear forces and long-range aircraft, or following the strategic nuclear strike.

The best form of launching the initial nuclear strike is to deliver it simultaneously with the strike of strategic nuclear weapons. However, this is feasible only under very favorable conditions when front nuclear means can be simultaneously brought to full combat-readiness and can be activated by the reception of the signal from the general staff. It must be noted that preparation of front nuclear delivery means lags behind preparation of strategic rocket forces. While delaying the launch of strategic nuclear means in the interest of front nuclear means to catch up is not desireable, sometimes the initial nuclear strike of the front follows the strike of strategic nuclear forces. This requires that the time gap between the strike of strategic forces and the delivery of front nuclear strike is decreased to the minimum. This can be achieved by the following:

--- - upgrading combat-readiness of front rocket troops;
--- - taking timely measures on rocket technical support;
--- - advance deployment of front rocket troops in the FUP areas.

Given the increased capabilities of the enemy for detecting the launch of rockets and flights of the air force, operational-rockets must be fired simultaneously with the launch of strategic rockets and aircraft must be airborne simultaneously (at the time of launch of rockets). This form of action better insures surprise delivery of initial nuclear strikes and protects front rocket troops and aircraft from enemy strikes prior to the launch of initial nuclear strikes and flight of the front aviation. In order to facilitate simultaneous launch of front nuclear weapons at the time of delivery of the strategic nuclear strike, the standby rocket troops (30% of the front rocket troops) are kept ready to participate in the initial nuclear strike.

Targets of strikes of standby nuclear weapons are enemy operational nuclear means and his command and control systems.

Depending on their level of readiness and preparation, the main rocket troops and front aviation are directed to inflict heavy losses on the main groupings of enemy forces, air defense means, command posts, and other vital enemy targets.

The use of strategic, operational-tactical and tactical nuclear troops against enemy targets must be calculated in accordance with the required security distance of friendly troops from nuclear explosions. The security distance of the attacking troops from the center of nuclear bursts depends on the following:

--- - yield of nuclear rounds to be used;
--- - types of bursts;
--- - direction and speed of wind;
--- - time of day (during hours of darkness the light radiation of nuclear bursts is two times more effective than during the daylight hours).

The security distance of attacking troops (personnel in the open and in top-open APCs in the daylight) from the center of explosion (burst) is as follows:

--- - 5 kilotons -- 2.5 km
--- - 10 kilotons -- 3.0 km
--- - 20 kilotons -- 3.8 km
--- - 30 kilotons -- 4.4 km
--- - 40 kilotons -- 5.2 km
--- - 100 kilotons -- 6.5 km
--- - 200 kilotons -- 8.2 km
--- - 300 kilotons -- 9.4 km

If friendly troops are not warned the security distance for 5 and 10 kilotons increases 4.5 times, for 20, 30, 50, and 100 kilotons 3.5 times, for 200 and 300 kilotons 2.5 times. At night these distances further increase by two times.

During the conduct of the initial nuclear strike, due to the likelihood of rapid changes in the situation and losses of front nuclear means from enemy strikes, adjustments will be made in the graphic strike plan. This adjustment is aimed at rescheduling (re-timing) the destruction of enemy targets on the basis of repeated reconnaissance. Nuclear strikes on some targets previously planned will be changed in order to assign new strikes to some newly disclosed targets. Primary targets will be enemy nuclear weapons. It will be necessary to re-allocate the number and yield of nuclear rounds for inflicting the planned losses due to the degree of losses already inflicted on some targets. All this requires re-assignment of tasks to rocket troops and the aircraft.

In the process of making the above mentioned adjustments, the front commander must examine closely the time for the changes and the capabilities of the troops to execute them.

During the organization and conduct of the initial nuclear strike, the level of losses inflicted on the enemy must provide for the establishment of decisive superiority in troops and means over the enemy for the conduct of a rapid advance (attack). Simultaneously, or after the strikes, the troops must repel enemy aerial attacks. At this stage, an invasion by enemy groupings of forces is also possible. The repulsion of massive flights of enemy aircraft and pilotless means can be initiated by commitment of fighter aviation and powerful strikes of front and national air defense units. In this case enemy aerial attacks are repelled first by those air defense means in whose range the enemy aircraft first entered. When all air defense troops and means are brought to full combat-readiness it is required that in the development of the direct threat of the outbreak of war the repulsion of aerial enemy attacks is always initiated according to the plan. Efforts must be made so that if the enemy launches a surprise invasion, the combat action to destroy enemy aerial targets is initiated by standby air defense means and later their action is expanded by commitment of the rest of the air defense troops and means and front aircraft.

In all conditions the strongest action against the aerial enemy must be directed at the distant approaches to the friendly troops and targets covered by air defense means. These actions must be as strong as possible so that air defense capability is exploited to the maximum. This means that decisive losses can be inflicted on the enemy before they reach their targets.

Following nuclear and air strikes, formations and operational formations of enemy ground forces may initiate the attack on individual directions. The repulsion of such an enemy attack is conducted by the forces and means of covering units and those first-echelon formations which are deployed in the direction of enemy attack. The most threatening groupings of enemy forces will be destroyed by subsequent nuclear strikes, as well as, by front aircraft strikes and massive fire of artillery. When needed, the directions that are most threatened are reinforced by combined arms and special reserves. Heavy losses are inflicted on the enemy forces which have initiated the attack. Measures are taken to prevent the enemy from arriving at the flanks and rear of the striking groupings of the front forces which are preparing for the attack, or have already initiated the attack.

As a result of nuclear strikes from opposing sides, the situation rapidly changes heavy, vast, and numerous destructions are created including the following:

--- - large radioactive contaminated areas;
--- - wide areas of inundated terrain;
--- - large fires in forests and populated areas.

Due to enemy nuclear strikes front forces may sustain losses and, therefore, some individual groupings of forces may become extremely weakened or lose their combat capabilities.

Immediate and rapid measures are taken to eliminate the consequences of mass-destruction weapons. In order to organize and conduct all necessary measures for eliminating the consequences of enemy nuclear weapons and to restore the combat capabilities of troops in the shortest time, enormous efforts are taken on the part of the front commanders, staffs, chiefs of arms and services, as well as, troops. It is essential to acquire information about the status of the troops and the radioactive situation. The level and extent of casualties and the readiness level of formations and units for the conduct of combat missions are assessed. Timely acquisition, collection, and evaluation of accurate data regarding the aforementioned information greatly affects the rationality and relevance of decisions made on future actions of the troops. front commanders (army commanders) and their staffs must show maximum initiative in this situation in order to conduct measures for eliminating the consequences of enemy nuclear strikes and to accomplish assigned combat missions. Restoration of combat capabilities of formations and units closely relies on the following:

--- - rapid action in moving troops from affected areas;
--- - maneuvers and quick reorganization of the forces;
--- - extension of combat supporting measures and technical measures;
--- - re-establishment of conditions facilitating the accomplishment of the combat missions and also resupply (personnel and combat equipment) to make up for losses and repair of damaged equipment.

Restoration of combat capabilities of formations and units affected by enemy nuclear strikes depends on the conduct of the following actions:

--- - taking measures on restoration of disrupted troop control of formations and units;
--- - extraction of formations (units) from the center of the most severely affected areas to continue the conduct of the combat missions;
--- - conduct of rescue operations in areas with high density of casualties and evacuations of personnel;
--- - specialized decontamination of personnel, weapons, and material;
--- - taking measures to decontaminate roads and exit routes from the centers of casualties;
--- - extinguishing or restricting fires.

When major losses occur and the complete structure of divisions or their separate units disintegrates, all surviving personnel and combat equipment which are still of combat value are reorganized into individual detachments mostly regiments and battalions. The organization, structure, and composition of formations and units reorganized into new formations can be different from one another. It is also possible that under certain conditions it may be deemed more feasible not to integrate surviving elements into individual detachments. Instead surviving units and sub-units of one division are attached to and integrated into an intact division. This method will not require elaborate reorganization measures.

In the meantime, measures are taken to restore and re-supply the losses of weapons, combat equipment, and material resources.

Initiation of the Attack by Front Forces and Destruction of Opposing Enemy Groupings

The front forces initiate the offensive from the FUP (staging--departure) areas or assembly areas they have occupied immediately after the combat alert (alarm) and in some cases directly from their permanent locations and exercise areas.

The method of initiation of the attack depends on the condition of the situation and primarily on the results and consequences of the initial nuclear strikes of both sides, effectiveness of the action of defending troops, and the characteristics of enemy actions. One of the most important requirements in this phase is the maximum exploitation of the impacts of the initial nuclear strike for the destruction of the opposing (confronting) enemy.

As the front forces initiate the attack, they may have to do the following:

--- - conduct meeting engagements;
--- - pass through or penetrate enemy defenses;
--- - pursue the enemy;
--- - foil enemy counterblows;
--- - destroy groupings of enemy forces trying to counterattack;
--- - pass through different obstacles and contaminated areas;
--- - conduct assault river crossings over water obstacles;
--- - seize urban areas and vital political, administrative, and economic areas.

A situation cannot be excluded, that, during offensive operations, the front may be forced to assume the defense by part of its forces on individual directions.

During the offensive operation the front forces opt to destroy confronting (opposing) enemy groupings of forces in border areas. In this case decisive losses are inflicted on the enemy by initial nuclear strikes and decisive defeat or destruction of his resisting groupings. This is achieved by subsequent nuclear strikes and actions of the attacking troops. In the meantime, possible dramatic and rapid changes in the situation, due to nuclear strikes from both sides, may bring about the need to reconsider or readjust (reconfirm) forms of actions of the troops to destroy surviving groupings of enemy forces operating in the border areas.

Different conditions for the destruction of the enemy may develop depending on the following:

--- - degree of enemy losses;
--- - combat capability and combat power of the front forces;
--- - correlation of forces and means.

In cases in which the enemy suffers from such heavy losses that its groupings of forces in the border areas are disintegrated into individual and isolated groups, without combat capability, the combat action of the front forces is characterized by rapid advance of the main groupings of forces in pre-combat order, or in high speed marching columns to the depth of enemy territory. A part of the troops will be sufficient to complete the destruction of surviving groupings of enemy forces, which have maintained combat capabilities.

When, on individual directions or across the entire front of the front both sides suffer heavy casualties, the most important actions would be as follows:

--- - overtake (preempt) the enemy in delivering subsequent nuclear strikes on the enemy groupings which have maintained combat capability;
--- - initiation of a decisive, rapid attack by all troops having combat capability;
--- - elimination of the consequences of nuclear strikes;
--- - quick restoration of combat capabilities of the troops hit by nuclear strikes;
--- - employing troops for development of the attack.

It is possible for individual groupings of forces to lose their total combat capability while the enemy exploits this situation by launching attacks against them with his troops having maintained combat capabilities. Under such circumstances, it is required that repeated (subsequent or follow-up) nuclear strikes be delivered against the most dangerous groupings of enemy forces. Defensive action of the troops is also organized on the affected directions and sometimes such directions are reinforced by front and army troops and means.

Another situation may develop when the enemy suffers heavy losses in one direction. On the other axes his forces escape destruction and are left intact and capable of initiating decisive attacks. In such situations all of the front's efforts must concentrate on rapid delivery of massive nuclear strikes on enemy groupings which have maintained combat capabilities. In the meantime, part of the front's forces launch an attack in the wake of the nuclear strikes. This group then advances to destroy the enemy in a meeting engagement.

In order to destroy the enemy in a meeting engagement, massive pre-emptive (overtaking) nuclear strikes by rocket troops and the front air army must be delivered against approaching enemy forces or enemy attacking groupings. This will inflict decisive losses on the enemy forces before they come into close contact with the front forces. During pre-emptive strikes of nuclear and conventional weapons, the front forces must advance rapidly to quickly complete the destruction of enemy forces.

A basic form of enemy destruction in meeting engagements by use of nuclear weapons is a combination of frontal blows (strikes) on the enemy's forward (leading) formations and blows (strikes) by a part of the front forces on the flank of the enemy's main groupings of forces before it deploys. The formations conducting the frontal blows (attacks), following the nuclear strikes, do the following:

--- - infiltrate from the line of march into the gaps between enemy columns;
--- - break the enemy into individual units.

The formations attacking on other axes as quickly as possible try to envelop and encircle the main enemy groupings and destroy them by attacks from one or both flanks. In conditions of mass employment of nuclear weapons another form of enemy destruction in the meeting engagement is also possible. Devastating frontal attacks are launched in several directions to disintegrate enemy groupings into isolated pieces and destroy them piecemeal.

In offensive operations with the use of nuclear weapons the front forces often pass through (penetrate--breakthrough) enemy defenses. At the beginning of the operation the front forces pass through the enemy's forward defense line. During development of the attack in the depth, they will pass through enemy defenses on intermediate and rear defensive lines.

When the enemy deploys its forces in advance, or during the conduct of the initial strike on forward defensive lines, passage through such defenses will be conducted by rapid action of front first-echelon combined arms and tank armies, after the delivery of the initial nuclear strike and passage of the troops through enemy security zones.

During passage through the security zone, follow-up nuclear strikes are launched against newly-detected enemy nuclear delivery means, against enemy groupings of forces deployed in the directions of the front's attacks, on forward defensive lines or in the rear of such lines. In individual directions where groupings of enemy forces are not sufficiently suppressed by nuclear weapons, an artillery preparatory fire can be conducted on the basis of decisions of army commanders.

By exploiting the consequences of the nuclear strikes and the results of the artillery preparatory fire and also by using the gaps between the enemy's operation formations as deployed in defense, the first-echelon formations assault the enemy's forward defense line from the line of march. They avoid decisive engagement with the surviving enemy groupings but rapidly move to their flanks and rear to destroy them and develop their rapid attack to the full depth. They always refrain from becoming involved in long lasting battles.

Individual enemy groupings and enemy resisting points left on the flanks and rear can be destroyed by artillery, tank fire, and by approaching reserves and formations of armies and sometimes formations of the front. To destroy such groupings of enemy forces, nuclear strikes using smaller yield nuclear rounds, in close consideration of the required security distance to friendly troops, are allocated if needed.

Development of the Attack

Development of the attack by front forces is achieved in the following manner:

--- - troop efforts on vital attack directions are enhanced and reinforced;
--- - the attack speed is increased to complete destruction of enemy troops quickly;
--- - areas which facilitate the achievement of the aim of the operation are seized rapidly.

In order to insure a successful development of the attack repeated (follow-up or subsequent) nuclear strikes are launched against enemy targets and groupings of forces. First-echelon armies are reinforced by reserve divisions of the front or through regroupment of forces by shifting troops from less important directions. Second-echelon forces are committed into combat. In order to complete destruction of the enemy forces, tank armies (tank divisions) and airborne assault troops are primarily employed.

Tank armies and tank divisions of combined arms armies possess great striking power, high maneuverability, greater sustainability against the effects of destructive nuclear explosions, and better capability to pass through radioactive contaminated areas, obstacles, and destroyed zones. They can operate at higher speeds in the wake of nuclear strikes to destroy rapidly surviving enemy groupings and to destroy or seize airfields, road centers, rocket bases, air defense bases, major command posts, and foil enemy mobilization measures and actions. Tank armies by their independent actions, separate from the rest of front first-echelon forces, can launch striking blows to the flanks and rear of the enemy groupings, which have maintained their combat capability. They can expand their efforts on vital attack directions, or can assume the mission to shift the main attack (effort) to other directions.

During development of the attack, special importance is given to actions of airborne (seaborne) assault forces in the accomplishment of missions to complete the destruction of the enemy. The form and method of employment of such forces will differ. This will depend on the nature of assigned missions. Normally airborne assault forces are launched in the wake of nuclear strikes, on adjacent directions, and always have decisive objectives.

In order to insure success of the attack of combined arms and tank armies, on the first day of the attack, tactical airborne assaults are widely employed. They are assigned missions to complete the destruction of small surviving enemy groups, to prevent maneuver of enemy forces and means which have maintained their combat capability, and to help the first-echelon divisions in the following:

--- - seizing the road junctions;
--- - crossing water obstacles;
--- - passing through radioactive contaminated areas and mines, primarily nuclear mine obstacles.

Airborne assault-storm brigades must be used in their entirety in the wake of nuclear strikes. Their purpose is to destroy or seize the following:

--- - surviving enemy nuclear delivery means;
--- - nuclear and chemical munition stockpiles;
--- - depots;
--- - airfields;
--- - command posts;
--- - air defense means
--- - bridges;
--- - mountain passes;
--- - other vital targets.

In some cases the airborne assault-storm (Shtormovei Vozdoshnie Desantnei) formations and units may conduct missions to seize and hold vital lines and areas in the rear of enemy forces.

Missions of operational airborne assault forces are as follows:

--- - complete destruction of enemy forces hit by nuclear weapons;
--- - seize and destroy nuclear rocket bases, airfield centers (systems), nuclear munition stockpiles and depots;
--- - isolate enemy forces operating from the flanks and prevent the approach of enemy reserves from the depth;
--- - seize crossings and assist the front forces in assault crossings over major water obstacles;
--- - destroy enemy command posts and disrupt enemy troop control in general.

Bold and active actions by airborne assault troops constitute the basis for success in the accomplishment of the missions.

To support combat actions of the airborne assault troops, the front may launch individual and group nuclear strikes on the most threatening groupings of enemy forces and employ the air force elements to support the combat actions of the airborne assault troops.

When ground nuclear bursts are employed by the enemy, wide radioactive contaminated areas are formed. These areas constitute serious obstacles in the face of attacking forces. They delay advance of attacking forces. Therefore, by using ground nuclear bursts the enemy may try to gain time for moving his reserves up from the depth and maneuver his forces across the front. To insure the accomplishment of the operational mission, in such cases, special attention is paid to the effective actions of troops in the following situations:

--- - contaminated areas;
--- - areas affected by enormous destruction;
--- - fires;
--- - water overflow (inundation) areas.

Forms of passage through radioactive contaminated areas depend on the following:

--- - nature of the missions conducted by front forces;
--- - dimension and form of the contaminated area;
--- - level of radiation;
--- - time required for the level of radiation to fall;
--- - conditions for troop movement on the terrain;
--- - character of enemy action.

Principal forms for passing through radioactive contaminated areas can be the following:

--- - passage through radioactive contaminated areas from the march without waiting for the level of radiation to drop;
--- - passage through contaminated areas by avoiding (bypassing) places of higher levels of radiation;
--- - bypassing contaminated areas;
--- - passage through contaminated areas using a combination of the aforementioned forms;
--- - when the situation permits, troops may wait for the level of radiation to drop and then continue the advance.

The decision to use any form of passage through the contaminated areas must be based on the following requirements:

--- - insure rapid action of the troops and their quick maneuver to rapidly get out of the contaminated areas;
--- - develop the attack at a high rate of advance;
--- - destroy the enemy;
--- - seize enemy territory.

The Front forces must be reinforced by reserves to insure dynamic action and rapid maneuver during the development of the attack, delivery of devastating strikes, and expansion of effort. Reinforcement of the first-echelon armies by reserves is required in the following cases:

--- - destruction or completion of destruction of the enemy groupings of forces conducting the counterattack and enemy forces moving form the depth;
--- - troops shifting their efforts to other directions;
--- - individual groupings of the attacking forces suffer heavy losses due to enemy nuclear strikes;
--- - when the establishment of new groupings of forces becomes necessary.

In addition to these expansion of efforts (reinforcements of troops by reserves) can become necessary when on individual directions the correlation of forces and means become unfavorable for the striking elements of the front's attacking forces.

Commitment of Second-Echelon Army

One decisive form of expansion of effort is the commitment of the front's second-echelon forces (combined arms or tank army) into combat. This should change the operational situation sharply in favor of the front's attacking forces.

The front's second-echelon army can be committed into combat for the completion of the front's immediate mission or at the beginning of the execution of the long-range mission of the front. This does not preclude the possibility of commitment of the second-echelon as early as the first day of the operation, under certain conditions of the situation, and during the development of the attack. The front's second-echelon army, as a rule, is committed to conduct missions on the direction of the front's main attack. The second-echelon army can also be employed for the following:

--- - to develop the attack in new directions (other axes of the attack) in the interest of quick achievement of the aim of the operation;
--- - to reinforce a first-echelon army which has suffered heavy losses;
--- - to complete the accomplishment of the front's immediate mission.

In all conditions the commitment of the second-echelon army must be conducted in an organized manner, with heavy losses inflicted on enemy forces by strikes of rocket troops and air forces. This provides for the ability to advance rapidly to a greater depth of enemy territory and quickly to reach the rear and flanks of enemy main groupings of forces in order to seize vital areas and targets in the TSMAs. Commitment of the second-echelon army into combat can be conducted in the following areas:

--- - one or two armies operating up-front;
--- - between the flanks of two armies;
--- - in the gap created between first-echelon armies during the attack;
--- - in areas thinly occupied by the enemy.

In this case, the second-echelon army can be committed into combat simultaneously or successively in full strength or partial composition. Depending on the situation the commitment of the second-echelon army must follow nuclear massive or group strikes on enemy targets so that the army acquires, from the onset the ability to develop rapidly the attack to the depth of enemy territory.

front reserve formations and front's and armies' second-echelon forces must be constantly ready for any type of mission which may emerge due to the changing situation up-front. front and army commanders and their staff must constantly insure that second-echelon forces and reserves are quickly moved to follow attacking forces at appropriate distances. They must always be alert to take necessary measures rapidly to commit forces into combat when required and constantly to maintain their combat capability. Movement of reserves and second-echelon troops in the course of the attack must be conducted in secrecy, preferably during the night, on several routes when possible, and on a wide front. Under all conditions we must anticipate measures to eliminate rapidly the consequences of the use of enemy nuclear weapons, if our reserves and second-echelon troops are hit by such strikes.

Therefore, in achieving success during conduct of the offensive operation, the principal role is played by timely use of nuclear strikes of strategic nuclear forces and a concerted use of front's nuclear weapons in coordination with the employment of conventional means. Rapid advance of combined arms and tank forces and the active action of airborne assault forces in the enemy rear are also needed.

IV. Conduct of the Offensive Operation Without the use of Nuclear Weapons

The success of the offensive operation with the use of conventional weapons greatly depends on:

--- - gaining air supremacy;
--- - establishing superiority in correlation with forces and means on attacking directions by using striking forces, particularly the superiority in artillery and tanks;
--- - insuring surprise in air strikes;
--- - initiation of the attack and activeness and decisiveness of the actions of troops.

Forms of destruction of enemy groupings of forces during the offensive operation are as different as the conditions of the initiation of the attack, along with repulsion of enemy invasions.

Forms of Conduct of the Operation and Destruction of Enemy Groupings

In an offensive operation with conventional weapons an important task is inflicting losses and destroying enemy forces. This is accomplished by conventional means such as, artillery, air forces, tanks, and motorized rifle troops. Given the limited effects of conventional weapons on the enemy in terms of depth (range) basically the forms of conduct of the offensive operation are the following:

--- - successive destruction of the enemy across the front and in the depth;
--- - inflicting losses on enemy troops by mass strikes of the attacking forces, air forces, artillery, and fire of antitank means;
--- - combining the strikes with blows (strikes) from tanks and motorized rifle troops.

Under these circumstances achieving successful destruction of the enemy forces requires the following:

--- - establishing decisive superiority in troops and means over the enemy, particularly in the direction of the main attack;
--- - exploiting gaps and weak points in the enemy's operational and combat formations;
--- - conduct bold maneuvers on the flanks and rear of the enemy troops;
--- - destroy enemy forces in pieces.

The forms of conduct of the offensive operation with the use of conventional weapons are generally characterized (identified) by the following:

--- - successive destruction of enemy groupings of forces;
--- - wide use of maneuvers for envelopment of the enemy;
--- - cutting and breaking through enemy defenses;
--- - front participation in resolving tasks of the air operation in the TSMA;
--- - wide use of powerful artillery and air force fire for the direct support of attacking forces.

One principle form of the conduct of the offensive operation is the destruction of the enemy by the following:

--- - mass employment of artillery and the air force;
--- - launching of frontal blows (attacks) on one or two directions (axes);
--- - cutting to pieces and successive destruction of enemy groupings;
--- - simultaneous development of the attack to the depth and flanks.

Under certain conditions another form may be used in which front forces attack on converging directions to envelop, surround, and destroy enemy forces. At the same time they develop the attack to the depth. The use of this form of conduct in the offensive operation seems more reasonable in situations when enemy main forces are deployed in the tactical, immediate operational depth, when enemy major reserves are located far from the front, and when the frontline offers conditions for enveloping maneuvers.

In operations conducted along the coastline particularly where terrain conditions are suitable for conduct of wide maneuvers, the use of another form of conduct seems more reasonable. This form entails inflicting heavy losses on the enemy by massive use of artillery and air force. At the same time the front launches attacks from the front along the coastline to isolate enemy coastal groupings of forces from the support of their naval forces and destroys the isolated enemy with the cooperation of friendly naval forces.

Basically, destruction of major enemy groupings of forces involves inflicting losses on the enemy by artillery fire and air strikes of front aviation combined with the fire and strikes (attacks) of tank and motorized rifle troops. The attacking troops participating in the destruction of the major enemy groupings launch cutting and smashing frontal strikes (attacks) or strikes (attacks) to the flanks and rear of the enemy, in accordance with the situation, to rapidly destroy enemy forces in pieces. Attack on converging directions to envelop, encircle, and destroy enemy groupings can also be used. Simultaneously, with the destruction of enemy troops, the front forces must develop the attack to the depth at high speed.

Repulsion of Enemy Invasions and Foiling His Attacks

front forces, under any conditions of the situation, must constantly be ready to repulse enemy invasions and to foil his attacks. This is an important mission of the front. Repulsing enemy invasions and foiling his attacks can be conducted in different forms. These forms depend on the following:

--- - situation at the initiation of war;
--- - correlation of forces and means;
--- - state of combat-readiness;
--- - friendly forces and the enemy.

In favorable conditions, repulsing enemy aggressions and foiling his attack is conducted by launching surprise preemptive strikes by the air force and groupings of front forces on enemy forces preparing for the attack. Another way is by launching a decisive meeting strike (attack) on the enemy on the ground and in the air. Surprise preemptive strikes by the front inflict heavy losses on enemy aircraft, nuclear delivery means, artillery, and enemy troops. This insures seizure of the initiative at the beginning of the operation. Foiling the enemy attack by launching meeting strikes (attacks) is characterized by the following:

--- - intensive struggles to seize the initiative at the beginning of the operation;
--- - rapid commitment of fresh troops into combat as they approach from the depth for expansion of the strikes in specified directions;
--- - simultaneously repelling enemy strikes on the directions of his attack.

In all cases (conditions), when the enemy overtakes us in development and initiation of the attack and has great superiority in troops and means on specific directions, it is better to repel and foil the enemy's attack by a firm defense on prepared defensive lines in the departure (FUP) areas. The aim of such a defense is to inflict maximum loss on the enemy by firmly holding favorable lines and areas and then to destroy by counterattack, the enemy groupings which suffer from heavy losses and to initiate the offensive action by front forces.

In situations when enemy aggression does not take place along the entire front, but is conducted only on one direction, foiling it is achieved by defending against it with part of front's troops on the direction of the attack, while the forces of the front initiate the attack and by decisive strikes to the flanks of the aggressive enemy forces complete the destruction and develop the attack to the depth.

Foiling the enemy invasion, when combat action is conducted only with conventional weapons, is very difficult. The availability of strong air force groupings and mobile reserves in the enemy forces enables him to expand and reinforce his efforts on specific directions and continue to struggle for seizure of the initiative. In order to foil the intention of the aggressor and to break his will, the troops are required, under all conditions and given all probabilities, to conduct effectively a number of land and air strikes to impose their will on the enemy and seize the initiative.

Initiation of the Attack by Front Forces

Depending on the situation, the initiation of the attack by the front forces can be conducted from the following:

--- - waiting areas;
--- - FUP areas;
--- - assembly areas (occupied by combat alarm);
--- - line of march;
--- - position of direct contact with the enemy after repelling the attack.

Decisions on determining and organizing troops are based on the following:

--- - location of FUP areas;
--- - character of enemy actions;
--- - method of deployment of troops during the initiation of the attack;
--- - form of the employment of artillery and the air forces;

Preparatory fire should be conducted prior to initiation of the attack. Its basis is constituted by artillery fire and strikes of the front aviation. The duration of preparatory fire depends on the following:

--- - time required for the deployment of the troops from pre-combat to combat formations;
--- - their movement to assault objectives;
--- - enemy capability;
--- - degree of preparation of his defenses in terms of engineer works;
--- - time required by artillery to conduct its fire tasks during the preparatory fire.

Principal targets to be suppressed and destroyed by artillery fire during the preparatory fire are:

--- - tactical nuclear weapons;
--- - artillery;
--- - mortar batteries;
--- - tanks;
--- - antitank weapons;
--- - personnel and weapons in enemy defensive strong points (positions);
--- - troop control points;
--- - radio-technical means deployed in front of attacking troops;
--- - assaulting elements.

The targets to be hit by the air force are:

--- - nuclear delivery means;
--- - artillery batteries;
--- - command posts;
--- - enemy reserves;
--- - other enemy targets, preferable those located in depth of enemy territory, out of range of artillery.

The destruction of enemy covering troops, when they are not very strong, is conducted by forward detachments sent by first-echelon divisions supported by artillery and air force.

In such cases the main body of the first-echelon divisions move in columns following the forward detachments ready to support them and to exploit their success by rapid advance to the depth. Deployment of the main body of the first-echelon divisions into pre-combat and combat formations may be conducted in accordance with the need and degree of enemy resistance.

Therefore, when the border areas are covered by large enemy forces, their destruction may not only require the deployment of forward detachments, but also the main body of first-echelon divisions may have to deploy from the outset.

During the troops passage through enemy security zones, the commanders-in-chief are obliged to expand the efforts. This will insure that when friendly forces become engaged in combat actions with enemy main forces they possess such strong groupings that they are capable of destroying enemy main groupings in the meeting engagement or by conducting breakthroughs of the enemy's defenses.

Enemy Destruction in the Meeting Engagement

The meeting engagement is characterized by the following:

--- - intense struggles to seize and retain the initiative;
--- - limited time for organization of combat actions;
--- - rapid, drastic changes in the situation;
--- - dynamic, rapid development of combat actions;
--- - commitment of troops into combat from the line of march;
--- - wide use of maneuvers.

Meeting engagements without the use of nuclear weapons can develop during initial contact with enemy groupings of forces at the beginning of the offensive operation. They can also occur during the development of the attack in the depth where meeting engagements can develop on one or several directions simultaneously or successively in terms of front and at different depths.

The decisive factors in achieving success in a meeting engagement are the following:

--- - overtaking the enemy in launching air strikes;
--- - opening artillery fire on the main forces of approaching enemy troops;
--- - rapid deployment of friendly forces striking groupings on the specified directions (axes).

Prior to the attack of the division's main forces in the meeting engagement, an artillery preparatory fire is conducted to suppress enemy artillery, antitank guided missiles, tanks, personnel, and other enemy targets on directions of the friendly troop's combat actions. In this case artillery preparatory fire will normally be of shorter duration because the enemy will be on the move in the open and enemy targets will be exposed. Even if the enemy deploys to hold a defensive line, his fire system and engineer works of his defenses will need to be completed. Enemy targets will then be more vulnerable than in a prepared defense. Therefore, the artillery preparatory fire against the enemy in meeting engagements will be composed of shorter, powerful fire-strikes of 10-15 minutes. During this time (10-15 minutes) first-echelon motorized rifle and tank battalions can complete their deployment for the assault.

One of the main requirements in the meeting engagement is to divide (cut) the enemy into pieces. Efforts must be made to establish superiority in troops and means over the enemy in the directions of attack. Significant importance is given to the conduct of quick maneuver of formations and units and their arrival to the flanks and rear of enemy groupings of forces in order to launch decisive strikes from different directions. This kind of action always leads to highly favorable results.

The direction of attack of friendly troops is better selected in areas suitable for wide maneuvers by troops and means, which can also facilitate the exploitation of enemy open flanks and gaps present in enemy operational formations (dispositions).

The best form of destruction of the enemy in the meeting engagement is to launch heavy strikes primarily artillery and air strikes, combined with decisive actions from motorized rifle and tank troops at the flanks of enemy main forces before they can deploy. Efforts to contain the enemy from the front by a portion of the troops and fire strikes are also used. Friendly forces conducting meeting strikes (attacks) must move from the line of march (without stopping) into the gaps between enemy columns, divide the enemy in pieces (isolate enemy columns from one another), and destroy them piecemeal. Friendly troops attacking in other directions must try to envelop enemy main groupings as deeply as possible by envelopment and turning movement (deeper envelopment) in order to destroy it by strikes from flanks and rear. This form of destruction seems more acceptable and reasonable in situations when enemy groupings of forces are moving in a relatively narrow area, while the situation of front forces and terrain conditions favor maneuver of troops to the enemy flanks.

When the position and status of the front forces and terrain conditions do not require a double envelopment and turning movement of the enemy, the attack (strike) of the main forces is concentrated on one flank, while part of the front troops are deployed to contain enemy main groupings from the front.

When launching attacks to the enemy's flanks and rear is not possible as the character of the initiation of the offensive operation requires, the destruction is then conducted by several cutting (frontal) strikes from the main forces of the front combined with flank strikes conducted by a limited portion of the troops.

In all conditions it is necessary to accomplish the following:

--- - delay enemy advances;
--- - overtake or preempt the enemy in reaching favorable terrain lines;
--- - force the enemy to conduct combat actions in unfavorable terrain;
--- - launch preemptive (overtaking) strikes of air force and artillery on the enemy;
--- - initiate surprise and decisive strikes of tanks and motorized rifle troops to the flanks and rear of the enemy;
--- - foil all enemy attempts to start defensive actions.

In order to develop the success of the front forces and to expand (reinforce) striking power, it is better to use second-echelon forces of the armies, front reserves, and sometimes to commit second-echelon forces of the front.

During actions to destroy enemy first-echelon forces, simultaneous efforts must be made to fight enemy reserves and his other troops moving from other directions for a regroupment of enemy forces. Interdiction and preventing enemy reserves from moving to the area of on-going meeting engagements are conducted by joint efforts of the following:

--- - long-range aircraft;
--- - front aviation;
--- - airborne assault forces dropped (landed) in the rear of the enemy;
--- - rapid advance of tank formations from the front.

Destruction of Enemy Groupings of Forces Which Have Assumed the Defense

During the offensive operation, the front forces may confront enemy defensive lines in the border areas and in the depth of enemy territory. Actions to destroy enemy defending groupings can be conducted both at the beginning and during the offensive operation.

At the beginning of the war attacking forces may have to breakthrough different forms of enemy defenses, including the defense prepared in advance (prepared defense). The enemy, in most TSMAs, particularly in the Western TSMA, prepare in advance defensive lines and establish engineer obstacles and in certain directions lay nuclear mines and demolitions.

It must be assumed that in modern times particularly the armed forces arrive at high speed and quickly occupy defensive lines with a high density of antitank means and powerful antitank fire systems.

This indicates that attacking front forces will be facing a thoroughly prepared, strong enemy capable of resisting massive strikes of tank and motorized rifle troops. Destruction of such enemy forces requires the following actions:

--- - sufficient, reliable suppression of enemy troops in penetration (breakthrough) areas and their flanks by artillery fire and mortars delivered on specific targets;
--- - suppression of immediate enemy reserves, artillery, and command and control points by air strikes;
--- - decisive actions by first-echelon tank and motorized rifle troops;
--- - continuous support fire for the attacking troops so they may expand (reinforce) their efforts in decisive directions.

To destroy enemy defending groupings of forces, it is necessary to have the required superiority in forces and means over the enemy on specified directions of the strikes (attacks).

The following must be taken into consideration:

--- - determining the direction of strikes (attacks) and the width of penetration areas;
--- - combat capabilities of formations and units and their supporting means (attached means);
--- - establishing the required density of the troops to conduct penetration (breakthrough);
--- - constant risk of mass-destruction weapons.

The front often conducts penetration (breakthrough) in two areas. One will be the main penetration area. In some cases, the front may conduct the penetration (breakthrough) in one area. The total width of the penetration areas of the front should not be less than 20-25 km so that a simultaneous commitment of 2-3 divisions for the development of the penetration can be insured. The width of the penetration area of an army should be 8-10 km.

Depending on the characteristics and degree of preparation of the enemy defense, it can be penetrated from the line of march (without stopping) initially by forward detachments along with airborne assault troop actions and subsequently by the main forces. The penetration can also be conducted by the main forces of first-echelon divisions after brief preparation.

The requirement of attacking troops in terms of number of artillery pieces for the penetration depends on the number and characteristics of likely enemy targets to be simultaneously hit during the artillery preparatory fire phase (except targets assigned to air force and other means). Experience and calculations indicate that during penetration of enemy prepared defenses 90-100 or 110-120 guns and mortars per kilometer of penetration frontage are required.

Length of artillery preparatory fire depends on the character of enemy defenses and the availability of troops and means required to inflict sufficient losses. Artillery preparatory fire, in principle, must be whenever possible, brief, powerful, and by surprise. During artillery preparatory fire, all forward weapons, including tanks and antitank guided missiles to be employed to destroy individual enemy targets and to inflict losses on enemy weapon systems by direct fire.

During the preparatory fire, artillery must suppress the following targets:

--- - enemy main resistance points (defensive positions) on the forward edge of the defense and its immediate vicinity:
--- - enemy artillery and mortar batteries;

Simultaneously, aircraft launch strikes against reserves, artillery, and immediate command and control points. The assault must be initiated simultaneously and precisely at the (H) hour. Tank and motorized rifle divisions should penetrate through enemy forward defense lines. They must destroy surviving troops and weapons and rapidly breakthrough enemy rear forces by exploiting gaps in enemy combat formations (dispositions) and weakly covered areas.

Speed of penetration of enemy defenses greatly depends on the degree of suppression of the enemy by fire. In order to insure a highly rapid penetration, the enemy defense must be sufficiently suppressed in the entire tactical depth prior to initiation of the attack and during the attack. Depending on enemy capabilities in antitank weapons, enemy defenses particularly at the beginning of attack are heavily suppressed. For this purpose the enemy's company resistance points (defense positions), where a large number of short-range antitank weapons are deployed, are sufficiently suppressed. Enemy antitank weapons from battalions and brigades deployed in the areas of company defense positions are destroyed simultaneously.

The enemy must be destroyed piecemeal. To achieve this the enemy's defending units must be isolated by massive air strikes and rapid actions. They should not be allowed to concentrate and reinforce their efforts, especially on vital directions. Therefore, during the penetration (breakthrough) phase the attacking forces must concentrate on rapid development of the attack to the full depth of enemy territory. The air force must launch strikes on deeper enemy reserves and on their approaching routes to the area of ensuing combat actions. Rocket artillery (multiple rocket launching artillery) can play an important role in the accomplishment of this task. This type of artillery is capable of launching massive attacks on enemy reserves in the course of the conduct of the operation.

The attack must be developed along directions (axes) while enemy resistance points and resistance centers are bypassed. During the development of the attack, all measures must be taken to deny chances for the enemy to establish organized defenses in the depth. Enemy attempts to delay the advance of the troops and to assume defenses on prepared lines must be foiled by the following:

--- - artillery and air strikes;
--- - dropping of airborne assault troops;
--- - rapid action of motorized rifle and tank troops.

In this case it is required that artillery and air strikes be launched before friendly forces reach enemy defensive lines. Friendly troops then can pass through enemy defenses from the line of march (without stopping) and rapidly destroy the enemy. Attacking forces, after the breakthrough of enemy defenses must be ready for pursuit and completion of the destruction.

Development of the Attack

In order to insure development of the attack the following measures must be taken:

--- - expand (reinforce) and enhance efforts of the front on the main directions of attack;
--- - facilitate the advance of the front forces particularly tank armies and tank divisions at high speeds.

These actions are taken so that enemy efforts to establish defenses on successive lines or to initiate active actions against our troops are foiled. Air strikes are directed toward destruction of enemy nuclear delivery means, enemy resistance troops, command and control points, air force, and reserves. The attacking forces, as a rule, must push forward and reach the areas of enemy nuclear weapons, airfields, and other vital targets as fast as possible.

As in nuclear war, during the development of the attack in conventional war an important and decisive role will be played by various tactical and operational airborne assault actions. Airborne troops by their bold and decisive action in seizing vital targets and areas in the enemy rear will facilitate successful attacks by the main groupings of front forces and quick completion of the destruction.

In contemporary times the enemy has far more capabilities than in the previous wars to conduct fast maneuvers by his reserves and, therefore, to launch powerful counterblows (counterstrikes) on attacking troops. Enemy counterblows would be combined with heavy air strikes and massive employment of artillery. One of the most important missions during the operation is foiling enemy prepared counterblows (counterattacks). Vital importance is given to the following:

--- - inflicting losses on approaching and maneuvering enemy reserves;
--- - delaying the enemy by air strikes and artillery fire;
--- - actions of airborne assault troops;
--- - rapid advance to overtake the enemy;
--- - seizure of favorable terrain lines.

Under conditions when the correlation of forces and means is favorable, it is better to destroy enemy counterattacking groupings by delivering massive strikes of front aircraft and long-range artillery fire during its approach and deployment. Combined with the aforementioned, attack of motorized rifle and tank formations at one or both flanks of counterattacking enemy groupings is used. To support the actions of friendly forces attacking enemy flanks, the most dangerous enemy groupings can be contained from the front by a portion of the friendly troops.

When the correlation of forces and means are not in favor of the friendly forces, it is better to do the following:

--- - initially, part of the troops temporarily assume the defense on the direction of enemy counterblows (counterattacks);
--- - repel enemy counterattacks;
--- - inflict maximum losses the enemy;
--- - destroy it by striking (launching the attack) at the flank of the enemy.

Meanwhile, along with repelling enemy counterblows, the attack on other directions must be developed to the depth. To support and insure this type of action, sometimes the second-echelon of the front can be committed into combat.

During the development of the front offensive operation, particularly in the Western TSMA front forces will have to conduct assault river crossings over a large number of rivers and canals.

In contemporary offensive operations the assault river crossing must be conducted by surprise. It is conducted from the line of march (without stopping) on a wide front as the troops approach the water obstacle. Crossing troops should develop the attack on the far bank of the water obstacle without interruption.

An important mission of the front forces is enemy destruction prior to his arrival at the water obstacle. The enemy then is denied opportunity to cross to the far bank. Simultaneously, the destruction of enemy reserves deployed on the far bank of the water obstacle or enemy troops moving from the depth to the water obstacle is an important task of front forces.

front aircraft launch strikes on enemy nuclear delivery means and the main groupings of enemy retreating forces, particularly during their concentration at the water obstacle. In the meantime, the airborne assault troops are employed to prevent the arrival of enemy reserves to the far bank. The airborne assault troops also do the following:

--- - seize and retain bridges and crossings;
--- - prevent the destruction of hydrotechnical installations on water obstacles, therefore, avoiding inundation of the terrain with water overflow.

The success in assault river crossings from the line of march (without stopping) is achieved through advance preparation made during the movement of troops to the water obstacles. For this purpose, areas of assault crossings and the methods of troop movements to water obstacles are determined in advance. Under cover of air defense means and fighter aviation the following tasks are accomplished:

--- - assault crossing means are moved forward;
--- - pontoon bridges are deployed rapidly to their sites;
--- - traffic and commandant service is organized on the main routes and at the crossing sites.

The front commander makes decisions on assault river crossings are made prior to the arrival of the troops at the water obstacle. Troop missions are assigned in such a way that they have time allotted for preparation of the crossing before troops actually reach the water obstacle.

In order to facilitate and insure a successful assault river crossing, special importance is given to seizing of bridges and existing crossing sites. These tasks are conducted by airborne assault troops, forward detachments, and special detachments assigned and detached from first-echelon forces.

V. Initiation of Action by Front Forces With the Employment of Nuclear Weapons

In modern times an important characteristic of the conduct of the front offensive operation with the employment of only conventional weapons is constant readiness of the front to deliver a nuclear strike and preparedness of the troops for action under such conditions. This phase can begin at any time. However, it is more likely to erupt during situations which are very crucial to the enemy. One crucial situation develops when the main groupings of the enemy's first-echelon troops are destroyed and attacking forces of the front break into vital enemy territory or occupy them, and the enemy cannot delay the subsequent attack and advance of our forces by conventional weapons. The transition to the use of nuclear weapons, qualitatively, is a new phase in the course of the operation. During this phase both sides will try to change the situation fundamentally in their favor and impose heavy losses on the other side.

The most important tasks in this phase are the following:

--- - delivering the initial massive nuclear strike;
--- - maintaining the combat capability of the troops;
--- - supporting (insuring) high speed of their advance in the wake of the initial nuclear strike.

In order to insure timely delivery of the initial nuclear strike the following actions are required:

--- - continuous detection and surveillance of targets to be destroyed;
--- - detection of enemy measures which can be proof of the enemy beginning direct preparation for the use of nuclear weapons;
--- - constant reconfirmation (updating) of the plan of the initial nuclear strike;
--- - maintaining constantly high combat-readiness of the front's troops and aircraft for delivery of the nuclear strikes;
--- - maintaining a viable control of troops and means;
--- - taking direct measures on dispersion of the troops and their protection against the impact of mass-destruction weapons when indications of enemy preparation are disclosed.

Special attention must be directed toward measures on political-morale and psychological preparation of the personnel. They must be inundated with the spirit of inner discipline, resistance, endurance, and devotion to duty in the interest of the accomplishment of the combat missions.

The main effort of all types of reconnaissance must be directed right from the outset of the operation to detecting the indications of the enemy's direct preparation for the employment of nuclear weapons. The reconnaissance constantly must observe the situation of enemy units which are capable of using nuclear weapons, and also supply dumps and distribution points for nuclear ammunition. Reconnaissance also monitors the actions of troop control organs and communication means which provide the control system of the troops and means delivering the nuclear attack.

In solving these tasks a major role is played by space reconnaissance conducted by satellites which are currently moving in orbits at an altitude of 200-250 km. These space means, in one trip around the earth, can photograph an area 40-50 km wide and can detect launching positions of land-based rockets, airfields, the aircraft based there, and also indications of troop actions.

Reconnaissance provides timely detection (disclosure) of indications of the enemy's direct preparations for nuclear attacks and accurate determination of the place of the use of nuclear weapons. The front commander then has the ability to take actions to overtake (preempt) the enemy in delivery of the initial nuclear strike.

To insure overtaking (preempting) the enemy in delivering the nuclear strike, special importance is given to maintaining high combat-readiness of the front's nuclear delivery means. This is achieved by the following:

--- - timely upgrading of the level of combat-readiness of rocket troops and air forces and supplying them with nuclear rounds;
--- - constant reconfirmation (updating) of the combat missions in launching the nuclear strike in accordance with the changes in the situation;
--- - centrally controlled and timely relocation of the positions of the rocket troops and movement of the front aviation during the conduct of the operation.

The front staff constantly must acquire information about changes in targets for the initial nuclear strike and, in accordance with the decision of the front commander, issue instructions to the rocket troops and air force about their further combat-readiness for the delivery of the nuclear strike.

Upon detection of enemy preparations for a nuclear strike, it is required that, by using conventional means, the enemy's nuclear delivery means be weakened to the maximum extent and also, if possible, that the speed of the attack be increased.

During the launching phase of the initial nuclear strike the enemy's nuclear groupings must be greatly weakened by the following:

-- - surprise strikes by air force and artillery;
-- - rapid penetration by attacking troops to the nuclear delivery mean's firing positions;
-- - action of forward and special detachments, airborne assault troops and sabotage (diversionary) reconnaissance groups.

When organizing the front's initial nuclear strike, which is planned to be launched after an actual phase of conventional only combat, it must be noted that in such circumstances the forces of both sides are fully deployed and are in direct contact with one another. Moreover in such cases, in addition to operational-tactical delivery means, the nuclear means of first-echelon divisions would also be deployed. This indicates that the number of targets to be hit would be far greater than those planned for destruction during the initial nuclear strike when it is organized at the beginning of the offensive operation. Since the front forces will be in direct contact with the enemy, when planning to inflict losses on them, special attention is paid to selection of targets for nuclear weapons, use of favorable types of nuclear bursts, and calculation of correct security distance lines for the attacking troops.

The complex nature of and rapid changes in the situation in this phase, particularly changes in targets to be destroyed by nuclear delivery means, precludes the front from always selecting and specifying targets for all means employed in the initial nuclear strike. Therefore, it is required that army and division commanders widely exercise their initiative in selecting units and large units as targets in accordance with their assigned missions.

The most important issue is timeliness in instruction of the armies, air force, air defense forces, reserves, and also the rear service organs on targets of nuclear weapons, protection measures, and the nature of action in this phase. The troops are instructed on the exploitation of the consequences of nuclear strikes and the interaction amongst the troops is reconfirmed.

The form (postroanie) of the initial nuclear strike, when it is launched during the conduct of the offensive operation, depends on reconnaissance data about the targets to be destroyed, accuracy of such information, and the state of readiness of the rocket troops and the air force. In all circumstances when the initial nuclear strike is launched during the conduct of the offensive operation, the maximum number of troops and means are assigned and the strike is conducted in the shortest time.

During the conduct of the initial nuclear strike, decisive losses must be inflicted on nuclear delivery means of the groupings of opposing enemy ground forces (primarily first-echelon large units), air force, air defense troops and means, and enemy control points. In exploiting nuclear strikes, attacking troops must rapidly develop the attack by large units and units which have combat capability. At the same time special measures must be organized and conducted in the front and armies for the restoration of the combat capability of large units and units hit by enemy nuclear strikes and for elimination of the impacts of nuclear weapons.