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Nectanebo II ruled in
360–342 and was the third and last pharaoh of the Thirtieth Dynasty of
Egypt as well as the last native ruler of ancient Egypt. Under Nectanebo II,
Egypt prospered. For several years, Nectanebo II was successful in keeping
Egypt safe from the Achaemenid Empire. However, betrayed by his former servant,
Mentor of Rhodes, Nectanebo
II was ultimately defeated by the combined Persian and Greek forces in the
Battle of Pelusium 343. The
Persians occupied Memphis and then seized the rest of Egypt, incorporating the
country into the Achaemenid Empire under
Artaxerxes III.
In 525, the Persians conquered Egypt. Because of internal struggles for the
Persian imperial succession, Egypt managed to regain independence in 404. In
389, Pharaoh Hakor negotiated a treaty with Athens and for three years (from
385 to 383) managed to withstand Persian aggression. However, following the
conclusion of the
Peace of Antalcidas in 387 between the Achaemenids and the Greeks, Egypt
and Cyprus became the only obstacles to Persian hegemony in the Mediterranean.
At the beginning of 360, Nectanebo's predecessor, Teos, started preparations
for war against intruders. In the same year, the Egyptian army set off,
traveling along the coast by land and sea. Nectanebo II accompanied his uncle
Teos in that campaign and was in charge of the machimoi. In an attempt to
quickly raise finances for the war, Teos imposed taxes on Egyptians and seized
temple property. Egyptians, particularly the priests, resented these measures
but supported Nectanebo II. Teos asked Spartan military leader Agesilaus and
Athenian general Chabrias
to support him. Agesilaus, however, said he was sent to aid Egypt and not to
wage war against it. Chabrias returned home with his mercenaries. Teos decided
to flee to the Achaemenid court, where he ultimately died of natural causes.
Nectanebo contended with an unnamed pretender to the throne from the town of
Mendes, who proclaimed himself pharaoh. The revolt was probably led by one of
the descendants of Nepherites I, whose family had ruled the town before. The
claimant sent messengers to Agesilaus in an attempt to persuade Agesilaus to
his side. Agesilaus remained loyal to Nectanebo, fearing to become a turncoat.
At one of the towns in the Nile Delta, the troops of Nectanebo and Agesilaus
were besieged by the usurper, who had gained many sympathisers. Despite the
enemy's numerical superiority, Nectanebo and Agesilaus were victorious and the
revolt was put down in the fall of 360. Acknowledging Agesilaus, Nectanebo sent
him 220 talents of gold. Foreign affairs under Nectanebo II were thwarted by
repeated Achaemenid attempts to reoccupy Egypt. Before the accession of
Nectanebo II to the throne, the Persians attempted to reclaim Egypt in 385,
383, and 373. Nectanebo used the peace to build up a new army and employed
Greek mercenaries, which was a common practice at the time. In about 351, the
Achaemenid Empire embarked on a new attempt to reclaim Egypt. After a year of
fighting, Nectanebo and his allied generals, Diophantus of Athens and Lamius of
Sparta, managed to defeat the Achaemenids. Having scored a resounding victory,
Nectanebo II was acclaimed "Nectanebo the divine falcon" by his
people, and cults were set up in his name. In 345/44, Nectanebo supported the
Phoenician rebellion against the Achaemenid Empire, led by the king of Sidon,
Tennes, and dispatched military aid in the form of 4000 Greek mercenaries, led
by Mentor of Rhodes. However, having heard of the approach of the forces of
Artaxerxes III, Mentor opened communication with the Persians in collusion with
Tennes. At the end of 344, ambassadors of Artaxerxes III arrived in Greece,
asking for the Greeks' participation in a campaign against Egypt. Athens and
Sparta treated the ambassadors with courtesy, but refrained from committing to
an alliance against Egypt. Other cities, however, decided to support the
Persians: Thebes sent 1000 hoplites and Argos 3000. In the winter of 343,
Artaxerxes set off for Egypt. The Egyptian army, headed by Nectanebo, consisted
of 60,000 Egyptians, 20,000 Libu, and as many Greek mercenaries. In addition,
Nectanebo had a number of flat-bottomed boats intended to prevent an enemy from
entering the Nile mouths. The vulnerable points along his Mediterranean sea
border and east boundary were protected by strongholds, fortifications and
entrenched camps. Persian forces were strengthened by Mentor and his men, well
acquainted with the eastern border of Egypt, and by 6000 Ionians. Nectanebo II
was ultimately defeated and, in the summer of 342, Artaxerxes entered Memphis
and installed a satrap. Nectanebo fled to Upper Egypt and finally to Nubia,
where he was granted asylum. He, however, preserved a degree of power there for
some time. With the help of Khabash, Nectanebo made a vain attempt to regain
the throne.
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