LIVES OF THE GREAT COMMANDERS

Cornelius Nepos

Translated with note and illustrations by Quintus Curtius, Fortress of the Mind Publications, 2019, 275 pgs., index, illustrations, footnotes, paperback - this is the same book the Loeb edition titles Great Generals of Foreign nations.

Reviewer Comments: This is an excellent replacement for the Loeb library edition. That edition with a Latin text on each opposite page is a translation by Dr. John Rolfe in the 1920's. It appears that Dr. Rolfe sticks as closely as possible to the available Latin. The English text is from that time. This new edition is in a more contemporary now easier-to-read vernacular. Quintus Curtius (a pen name) discusses the origins of the various Latin editions and English translations. He lists a significant number of these early editions that he has used in preparation of his text. It is also in a larger and better typeface. The introduction and comments by the translator are more extensive. And he provides more footnotes with explanations and dates.
The chapters are the same - one for each of the generals.

This new edition is well worth its small cost as Nepos' appraisal of the personal qualities of his subject commanders is very relevant today. Below I briefly identify each individual and provide a link to the excellent Wikipedia entry. The link, above, to the Loeb edition has my more extensive comments about each general and about what Nepos thought about them.

Forward
The author provides an excellent context for the content of this book.
He writes: "The emphasis on character and moral development is a thread running through much of classical and Renaissance writing. The ancient historians, both Greek and Roman, are filled with moral admonitions on the role of Fortune in human affairs, and classical drama unceasingly reminds us of hubris's ruinous consequences."

This emphasis extends not only to the evaluations of the individuals whose actions are evaluated in biographies and in histories such as those of Thucydides and Herodotus; but also in the role the authors (and the societies they are describing) consider critical in the events that took place. Unfortunately writers today (political 'scientists', economists, and historians) reduce the role of individuals and aggregate their subjects or shift the policies, causes and actions to inanimate concepts such as 'the state', or 'economic man'.

The author continues with extensive examples of the importance teaching - educating - about character filled both formal and informal educational processes for centuries.
He explains: "These educational currents persisted for many centuries."... "Nepos appeared in countless 'school editions' though the 17th, 18th, and 19th, centuries. In clear, unadorned language, his short biographical sketches helped readers understand what qualities allowed his subjects to rise to distinction, and what defects eventually caused their downfalls. Moral truths were there by revealed." ... "All this changed in the twentieth century." He continues with his valid and much needed appraisal.

Wonderful, so correct. But, again, it is not only the contemporary reduction - dismissal - of the vital significance of the character of individual leaders today. The role of individuals themselves is supplanted by this ascribing of cause and effect to these amorphous entities - 'the state' - the White House - the Kremlin - Congress - China - and on and on that absolves the real individuals who are the essence of history.

The author states that his translation and publication today is designed to full the gap and assert the importance of individual character in leadership. "This book is intended to fulfill the need for a modern translation of Nepos that can be used both by students and general readers with no prior exposure to the subject matter."

A wonderful objective , and much needed response. But I doubt the idea that 'readers with no prior exposure to the subject matter' will possess enough of the contextual information to fully appreciate the lessons to be learned. This is why I have added at least a minimal access with the excellent Wikipedia biographical entries that in turn have many included links to the actions, decisions, and events significant to their times.

Introduction In this significant chapter the author provides a fine summary of what is known about Nepos himself and the content of the book.

Preface
See the Loeb edition. In this one the translator has added interesting and useful comment about what Nepos meant in his reference to Greek and Roman marriage rules.

Miltiades (c. 555 BC - 489 DC) Most famous as the Athenian commander who defeated the Persians at Marathon

Themistocles (c 524 - 459) Most famous as the Athenian politician and commander who built the extensive Athenian fleet and then urged the Athenians to abandon the city and rely on the fleet's 'wooden walls' to defeat the Persians at Salamis.

Aristides (c 530 - 468) Political rival of Themistocles who retuned from exile to a command position at Salamis and then commanded the Athenian contingents at the battle of Plataea. He subsequently also commanded the Athenian navy in the Aegean and established the foundation of the Delian League which evolved into the Athenian empire.

Pausanias ( c. 510 - 465) The Lacedaemonian (Spartan) commander in chief of the Greek army that defeated the Persians at Plataea. He went on as original commander of the combined Greek navies in the Aegean until his despotic, overbearing personality and actions created rebellion and caused the Spartan government to recall and convict him at a trial.

Cimon (c 510 - 450) The Athenian son of Miltiades who commanded Athenian and allied fleets in many victories until he died during a siege of Citium (Kitium) on Cyprus. He fought at Salamis and won at Eurymedon River

Lysander (? - 395) The Lacaedeamonian naval commander who won or lost various battles in the Aegean but is known most importantly as the Spartan commander who defeated the Athenians at Aegospotami, which in one stroke defeated them, destroyed their fleet, forced their surrender and ended the Peloponnesian War.

Alcibiades (c 450 - 404) A notorious Athenian politician and sometime military commander whose massive self-interest caused him to repeatedly switch sides between Athens and Sparta and between Greeks and Persians. Nepos devotes one of his longer chapter to describe this complex character.

Thrasybulus (c 440 - 388) An Athenian whom Nepos considers first rate for his character. He fled Athens after the victorious Spartans installed an oligarchical and tyrannical new government. He returned and deposed them, restoring the democracy. See Munichia, Phyle, and Thasos

Conon (c 444 - 394) An Athenian politician and military commander. He was generally successful but not at Aegospotami, where he was present but not in command and escaped to Cyprus. After that he obtained Persian financial and naval support that enabled him to defeat the Spartans and reestablish Athenian naval control and rebuild the city fortifications. see Cnidus

Dion (404 - 354) A Syracusian Greek related to the two Dionysius father and son tyrants. He over threw the latter.

Iphicrates (c 418 - 353) An Athenian military commander most noted for his innovations in tactics and armament. at Lechaeum

Chabrias (? - 357) An Athenian whom Nepos rates highly for his tactical skill in battle against the great Spartan general. Agesilaus, in 378. see Naxos - Nepos notes that Chabrias fought many other battles including in the Athenian expeditions to Egypt in 377 and 361. He died in battle during the Social War in a naval assault on Chios in which he insisted on defending his sinking ship against enemy borders.

Timotheus (? - 354) He was Conon's son. He captured Byzantium in 364 and then Samos and won great booty from Cotys. He liberated Cyzius. In 375 he led an Athenian fleet clear around the Peloponnesus looting as he went and then forced submission by Corcyra. Nepos remarks that he was accorded unique public honors because (paired with his father) they were the only father and son pair for whom statues were erected in Athens. In his old age he was sent as an advisor to Chares in a campaign against Samos that was a defeat due to circumstance about which he had no control. But only so typically of the Athenians as Nepos notes Timotheus was tried, found guilty, and fined.

Datames (? - 362) He was a Carian who served first in the bodyguard of Persian king Artaxerxes. His loyalty and success in increasingly important missions resulted in his appointment to high command. As so often, his success and prestige generated intense jealousy. Ultimately he was betrayed by Mithridates who feigned friendship and then literally stabbed him in the back.

Epaminondas (? - 362) He was probably the greatest Theban general, well known in history for his innovative battle tactics. Nepos devotes considerable attention and space to describing his personal character. His greatest victory was at Leuctra in 371 where he so badly defeated the Spartans that their military prestige was damaged. But at the battle at Mantinea in 362 he was wounded by a thrown javelin. Remaining calm he continued in action until he knew the Thebans had emerged victorious at which time he withdrew the javelin and died. Nepos considers that Thebes gained and retained its power during his lifetime and due to his superior character and lost it after he died. From this Nepos concludes that a single outstanding leader is worth more than the rest of the citizenry.

Pelopidas (c 410 - 364) The other great Theban general, well known in antiquity but mostly overlooked today. In the course of his description of Pelopidas Nepos penned several of his most cogent analytical comments, such as: "Great deeds in history have often been carried out by a relatively small number of men," and "an overabundance of confidence is often attended by a terrible calamity." Nepos considers that Pelopidas' greatest accomplishment was that with a very small number of friends was able to throw the conquering Spartan garrison out of the citadel that controlled Thebes. - Siege of Mantinea - Battle of Tegyra
As so often with these great leaders, Pelopidas, whom Nepos considered with Epaminondas as the two greatest of the Thebans, was subsequently exiled. Later still he was back leading his army against Thessalian tyrants when he was killed in battle.

Agesilaus (c 445 - 359) He was a Lacedaemonian (Spartan) king, victorious in many wars and battles. He was much admired by Xenophon, who wrote his biography. He commanded victorious Greek mercenary forces in battles against Persians but promptly answered an emergency call from Spartan to return to defend against their enemies. He marched rapidly over the same route that Xerxes used in record time and defeated the combined Athenian, Boeotian and other allies at Coronea in 394. Subsequently the Corinthian War centered around Corinth itself. He was not present at Leuctra in 371 but defended Sparta from Epaminondas in 369 despite the significant losses the Spartans had received at Leuctra. Still active at age 80 he accepted the invitation of the reigning Egyptian Pharaoh, Tacos, to help defend against the Persians in 360. As he embarked in Cyrene for home, he died and was then embalmed for the return to Sparta.

Eumenes (c 362 - 316) He was a Cardian - that is from Cardia a town in the Thracian Chersonesus.

Nepos begins with one of his strong considerations. "If his virtue had received the benefit of good fortune, he would certainly not have been greater than he was, since we evaluate great men by their characters and not by their fortune".

He was a friend of Macedonian king Philip and entered the service of Alexander as a personal private clerk. He served loyally and after Alexander's death he sought to support the generals who were loyal to Alexander's heir. Nepos describes the complex and shifting situations he confronted. He was allocated Cappadocia as a base. Alexander's principal generals fought violently among themselves for supremacy. Eumenes made the best possible use of the relatively meager forces he controlled. He infuses his narrative with comments comparing the perfidious self-serving Macedonian generals and rebellions and traitorous Macedonian Soldiers with the similar department of Roman leaders and soldiers of his time. Eventually Antigonus captured Eumenes and had him executed. Nepos notes that it was only after Eumenes' death that the rival generals; Ptolemy, Seleucus, Lysimachus, Antigonus and Cassandra dared term themselves 'king'.

Phocion (c 402 - 318) He was an Athenian who frequently commanded other, non-Athenian, forces. see Naxos
Nepos considers that' he was nevertheless more noted for the integrity with which he lived his life, than for his achievements in military affairs." Once again, despite his civic services, he was subject to Athenian public opprobrium, tried for treason and convicted. Nepos quotes Phocion himself when being led to execution. "It was not unforeseen. The majority of Athens's great men have suffered this same fate."

Timoleon (c. 411 - 337) He was a Corinthian. Nepos deems him great because he not only liberated his homeland, Corinth, from a tyrant but then repeated the accomplishment by liberating Syracuse from another tyrant. In achieving all this he had to overcome great obstacles, which Nepos terms 'inconstant Fortune.' see Crimissus in 339

On Kings In this chapter Nepos explains why he has not included some of the greatest leaders who were kings. He mentions, for instance. Cyrus, Darius, Xerxes, Artaxerxes I Macrodhir, Artaxerxes II Mnemon, Philip, Alexander, Pyrrhus, Dionysius (Tyrant of Sicily), and some of Alexander's Successors. The reason is because he has included them in his book on great kings.

Hamilcar (c 275 - 228)

Hannibal (c 247 _ 182)

From the book on the Latin Historians XXIV Cato (234 - 149)

XXV Atticus (c 110 - 32)

Fragments, Testimonies, and Judgments