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The wars of Alexander the Great were fought
by King Alexander III of Macedon ("The Great"), first against the
Achaemenid Persian Empire under Darius III, and then against local chieftains
and warlords as far east as Punjab, India (in modern history). By the time of
his death, he had conquered most of the world known to the ancient Greeks.[1]
However, he failed to conquer all of South Asia. Although being successful as a
military commander, he failed to provide any stable alternative to the
Achaemenid Empire[2]—his untimely death threw the vast territories he
conquered into civil war. Alexander assumed the kingship of Macedonia following
the death of his father Philip II, who had unified[3] most of the city-states
of mainland Greece under Macedonian hegemony in a federation called the
Hellenic League.[4] After reconfirming Macedonian rule by quashing a rebellion
of southern Greek city-states and staging a short but bloody excursion against
Macedon's northern neighbors, Alexander set out east against the Achaemenid
Persian Empire, under its "King of Kings" (the title all Achaemenid
kings went by), Darius III, which he defeated and overthrew. His conquests
included Anatolia, Syria, Phoenicia, Judea, Gaza, Egypt, Mesopotamia, Persia
and Bactria, and he extended the boundaries of his own empire as far as Taxila,
India (now Pakistan). Alexander had already made more plans prior to his death
for military and mercantile expansions into the Arabian Peninsula, after which
he was to turn his armies to the west (Carthage, Rome, and the Iberian
Peninsula). However, Alexander's diadochi quietly abandoned these grandiose
plans after his death. Instead, within a few years of Alexander's death, the
diadochi began fighting with each other, dividing up the Empire between
themselves, and triggering 40 years of warfare.
Background The Kingdom of Macedon in 332 BC Philip II was assassinated by the
captain of his bodyguard, Pausanias. Philip's son, and previously designated
heir, Alexander was proclaimed king by the Macedonian noblemen and army.[5]
News of Philip's death roused many states into revolt including Thebes, Athens,
Thessaly, and the Thracian tribes to the north of Macedon. When news of the
revolt reached Alexander he responded quickly. Though his advisers counseled
him to use diplomacy, Alexander mustered the Macedonian cavalry of 3,000 men
and rode south towards Thessaly, Macedon's immediate neighbor to the south.
When he found the Thessalian army occupying the pass between Mount Olympus and
Mount Ossa, he had the men ride over Mount Ossa and, when the Thessalians
awoke, they found Alexander at their rear. The Thessalians surrendered and
added their cavalry to Alexander's force as he rode down towards the
Peloponnese.[6] Alexander stopped at Thermopylae, where he was recognized as
the leader of the Sacred League before heading south to Corinth. Athens sued
for peace and Alexander received the envoy and pardoned anyone involved with
the uprising. At Corinth, he was given the title 'Hegemon' of the Greek forces
against the Persians. Whilst at Corinth, he heard the news of a Thracian
uprising in the north.[7] Balkan campaign Main article: Alexander's Balkan
campaign Before crossing to Asia, Alexander wanted to safeguard his northern
borders and, in the spring of 335 BC, he advanced into Thrace to deal with the
revolt, which was led by the Illyrians and Triballi. At Mount Haemus, the
Macedonian army attacked and defeated a Thracian garrison manning the heights.
The Macedonians were then attacked in the rear by the Triballi, who were
crushed in turn. Alexander then advanced on to the Danube, encountering the
Getae tribe on the opposite shore. The Getae army retreated after the first
cavalry skirmish, leaving their town to the Macedonian army.[8] News then
reached Alexander that Cleitus, King of Illyria, and King Glaukias of the
Taulantii were in open revolt against Macedonian authority. Alexander defeated
each in turn, forcing Cleitus and Glaukias to flee with their armies, leaving
Alexander's northern frontier secure.[9] While he was triumphantly campaigning
north, the Thebans and Athenians rebelled once more. Alexander reacted
immediately, but, while the other cities once again hesitated, Thebes decided
to resist with the utmost vigor. This resistance was useless, however, as the
city was razed to the ground amid great bloodshed and its territory divided
between the other Boeotian cities. The end of Thebes cowed Athens into
submission, leaving all of Greece at least outwardly at peace with
Alexander.[10]
Persia Main article: Chronology of the expedition of Alexander the Great into
Asia Asia Minor In 334 BC, Alexander crossed the Hellespont into Asia. It took
over one hundred triremes (triple-banked galleys) to transport the entire
Macedonian army, but the Persians decided to ignore the movement.[11] In these
early months, Darius still refused to take Alexander seriously or mount a
serious challenge to Alexander's movements. Memnon of Rhodes, the Greek
mercenary who aligned himself with the Persians, advocated a scorched earth
strategy. He wanted the Persians to destroy the land in front of Alexander,
which he hoped would force Alexander's army to starve, and then to turn back.
The satraps in Anatolia rejected this advice, considering it their duty to
defend their land.[12] Eventually, with Alexander advancing deeper into Persian
territory, Darius ordered all five satraps of the Anatolian provinces to pool
their military resources together and confront Alexander. This army was guided
by Memnon, while absolute command was split among the five satraps.[13] Battle
of the Granicus River Map of what would become Alexander's empire The Battle of
the Granicus River in May 334 BC was fought in Northwestern Asia Minor
(modern-day Turkey), near the site of Troy. After crossing the Hellespont,
Alexander advanced up the road to the capital of the Satrapy of Phrygia. The
various satraps of the Persian empire gathered their forces at the town of
Zelea and offered battle on the banks of the Granicus River. Alexander
ultimately fought many of his battles on a river bank. By doing so, he was able
to minimize the advantage the Persians had in numbers. In addition, the deadly
Persian chariots were useless on a cramped, muddy river bank.[citation needed]
Arrian, Diodorus, and Plutarch all mention the battle, with Arrian providing
the most detail. The Persians placed their cavalry in front of their infantry,
and drew up on the right (east) bank of the river. The Macedonian line was
arrayed with the heavy Phalanxes in the middle, Macedonian cavalry led by
Alexander on the right, and allied Thessalian cavalry led by Parmenion on the
left.[14] The Persians expected the main assault to come from Alexander's
position and moved units from their center to that flank.[citation needed]
Herma of Alexander (Roman copy of a 330 BC statue by Lysippus, Louvre Museum).
According to Diodorus, the Alexander sculptures by Lysippus were the most
faithful. Alexander's second-in-command, Parmenion, suggested crossing the
river upstream and attacking at dawn the next day, but Alexander attacked
immediately. He ordered a small group of cavalry and light infantry to attack
from the Macedonian right to draw the Persians off the bank and into the river.
Seeing that he successfully broke the Persian line, Alexander led his horse
companions in oblique order further to the right in order to outflank the
Persians and buy time for his infantry to cross the river.[14] Several
high-ranking Persian nobles were killed by Alexander himself or his bodyguards,
although Alexander was stunned by an axe-blow from a Persian nobleman named
Spithridates. Before the noble could deal a death-blow, however, he was himself
killed by Cleitus the Black. The Macedonian cavalry opened a hole in the
Persian line as the Macedonian infantry advanced, forcing the enemy back and
eventually breaking their center. The Persian cavalry turned and fled the
battlefield, and the Greek mercenary infantry they held in reserve were
encircled by the Macedonians and slaughtered; only around two-thousand of which
survived, and were sent back to Macedonia for labor.[15]
Alexander consolidates support in Asia Minor
Alexander consolidates support in Asia Minor After the battle, Alexander buried
the dead (Greeks and Persians), and sent the captured Greek mercenaries back to
Greece to work in the mines, as an abject lesson for any Greek who decided to
fight for the Persians. He sent some of the spoils back to Greece, including
three hundred panoplies (complete Persian suits of armor) back to Athens to be
dedicated in the Parthenon with the inscription "Alexander, son of Philip
and the Greeks, Lacedaemonians (Spartans) excepted, these spoils from the
barbarians who dwell in Asia".[16] Antipater, whom Alexander had left in
charge of Macedon in his absence, had been given a free hand to install
dictators and tyrants wherever he saw fit in order to minimize the risk of a
rebellion. As he moved deeper into Persia, however, the threat of trouble
seemed to grow. Many of these towns had been ruled for generations by heavy
handed tyrants, so in these Persian towns, he did the opposite of what he did
in Greece. Wanting to appear to be a liberator, he freed the population and
allowed self-government. As he continued marching into Persia, he saw that his
victory at Granicus had been lost on no one. Town after town seemed to
surrender to him. The satrap at Sardis, as well as his garrison, was among the
first of many satraps to capitulate.[citation needed] As these satraps gave up,
Alexander appointed new ones to replace them, and claimed to distrust the
accumulation of absolute power into anyone's hands. There appeared to be little
change from the old system. Alexander, however, appointed independent boards to
collect tribute and taxes from the satrapies, which appeared to do nothing more
than improve the efficiency of government. The true effect, however, was to
separate the civil from the financial function of these satrapies, thus
ensuring that these governments, while technically independent of him, never
truly were. Otherwise, he allowed the inhabitants of these towns to continue as
they always had, and made no attempt to impose Greek customs on them.
Meanwhile, ambassadors from other Greek cities in Asia Minor came to Alexander,
offering submission if he allowed their 'democracies' to continue. Alexander
granted their wish, and allowed them to stop paying taxes to Persia, but only
if they joined the League of Corinth. By doing so, they promised to provide
monetary support to Alexander.[citation needed] Siege of Halicarnassus The
Siege of Halicarnassus was undertaken in 334 BC. Alexander, who had a weak
navy, was constantly being threatened by the Persian navy. It continuously
attempted to provoke an engagement with Alexander, who would have none of it.
Eventually, the Persian fleet sailed to Halicarnassus, in order to establish a
new defense. Ada of Caria, the former queen of Halicarnassus, had been driven
from her throne by her usurping brother. When he died, Darius had appointed
Orontobates satrap of Caria, which included Halicarnassus in its jurisdiction.
On the approach of Alexander in 334 BC, Ada, who was in possession of the
fortress of Alinda, surrendered the fortress to him. Alexander and Ada appear
to have formed an emotional connection. He called her "mother",
finding her more amicable than his megalomaniacal snake-worshiping mother
Olympias. In return for his support, Ada gave Alexander gifts, and even sent
him some of the best cooks in Asia Minor, realizing that Alexander had a sweet
tooth. In the past, Alexander had referred to his biological father, Philip, as
his "so-called" father, and preferred to think of the deity Amon Zeus
as his actual father. Thus, he had finally managed to divorce himself from both
of his biological parents.[citation needed] Orontobates and Memnon of Rhodes
entrenched themselves in Halicarnassus. Alexander had sent spies to meet with
dissidents inside the city, who had promised to open the gates and allow
Alexander to enter. When his spies arrived, however, the dissidents were
nowhere to be found. A small battle resulted, and Alexander's army managed to
break through the city walls. Memnon, however, now deployed his catapults, and
Alexander's army fell back. Memnon then deployed his infantry, and shortly
before Alexander would have received his first (and only) defeat, his infantry
managed to break through the city walls, surprising the Persian forces and
killing Orontobates. Memnon, realizing the city was lost, set fire to it and
withdrew with his army. A strong wind caused the fire to destroy much of the
city. Alexander then committed the government of Caria to Ada; and she, in
turn, formally adopted Alexander as her son, ensuring that the rule of Caria
passed unconditionally to him upon her eventual death.[citation needed]
Syria Shortly after the battle, Memnon died. His replacement was a Persian who
had spent time in Macedonia called Pharnabazus. He disrupted Alexander's supply
routes by taking Aegean islands near the Hellespont and by fomenting rebellion
in southern Greece. Meanwhile, Darius took the Persian army to intercept
Alexander. Alexander marched his army east through Cappadocia, where, for a
stretch of nearly 150 km (93 mi), there was no water. As his army approached
Mount Taurus, they found only one route through which to pass, which was a
narrow defile called "The Gates". The defile was very narrow, and
could have been easily defended. However, the Persian satrap of Cappadocia had
an inflated view of his own abilities. He had been at the Battle of the
Granicus River, and had believed that Memnon's scorched Earth strategy would
work here. He didn't realize that the different circumstances of the terrain
made that strategy useless. Had he mounted a credible defence of the defile,
Alexander would have been easily repulsed. He left only a small contingent to
guard the defile, and took his entire army to destroy the plain that lay ahead
of Alexander's army. The Persian contingent that was supposed to guard the
defile soon abandoned it, and Alexander passed through without any problems.
Alexander supposedly said after this incident that he had never been so lucky
in his entire career.[citation needed] After reaching Mount Taurus, Alexander's
army found a stream that flowed from the mountain with water that was ice cold.
Not thinking, Alexander jumped into the stream, suffered a cramp and then a
convulsion, and was pulled out nearly dead. He quickly developed pneumonia, but
none of his physicians would treat him, because they feared that, if he died,
they would be held responsible. One physician named Philip, who had treated
Alexander since he was a child, agreed to treat him. Although he soon fell into
a coma, he eventually recovered.[citation needed] Battle of Issus Alexander's
decisive attack The battle of Issus took place in November 333 BC. After
Alexander's forces successfully defeated the Persians at the Battle of the
Granicus, Darius took personal charge of his army, gathered a large army from
the depths of the empire, and maneuvered to cut the Greek line of supply,
requiring Alexander to countermarch his forces, setting the stage for the
battle near the mouth of the Pinarus River and south of the village of Issus.
Darius was apparently unaware that, by deciding to stage the battle on a river
bank, he was minimizing the numerical advantage his army had over
Alexander's.[17] Initially, Alexander chose what was apparently unfavorable
ground. This surprised Darius who mistakenly elected to hold the wrong position
while Alexander instructed his infantry to take up a defensive posture.
Alexander personally led the more elite Greek Companion cavalry against the
Persian left up against the hills, and cut up the enemy on the less encumbering
terrain, thereby generating a quick rout. After achieving a breakthrough,
Alexander demonstrated he could do the difficult and held the cavalry
successfully in check after it broke the Persian right. Alexander then mounted
his beloved horse Bucephalus, took his place at the head of his Companion
cavalry, and led a direct assault against Darius. The horses that were pulling
Darius' chariot were injured, and began tossing at the yoke. Darius, about to
fall off his chariot, instead jumped off. He threw his royal diadem away,
mounted a horse, and fled the scene. The Persian troops, realizing they had
lost, either surrendered or fled with their hapless king. The Macedonian
cavalry pursued the fleeing Persians for as long as there was light. As with
most ancient battles, significant carnage occurred after the battle as pursuing
Macedonians slaughtered their crowded, disorganized foe.[citation needed]
The Battle of Issus occurred in southern Anatolia, in November 333 BC. The
invading troops led by Alexander were outnumbered more than 2:1, yet they
defeated the army personally led by Darius III of Achaemenid Persia. The battle
was a decisive Macedonian victory and it marked the beginning of the end of
Persian power. It was the first time the Persian army had been defeated with
the King present on the field. Darius left his wife and an enormous amount of
treasure behind as his army fled. The greed of the Macedonians helped to
persuade them to keep going, as did the large number of Persian concubines and
prostitutes they picked up in the battle. Darius, now fearing for both his
throne and his life, sent a letter to Alexander in which he promised to pay a
substantial ransom in exchange for the prisoners of war, and agreeing to a
treaty of alliance with and the forfeiture of half of his empire to Alexander.
Darius received a response which began "King Alexander to Darius". In
the letter, Alexander blamed Darius for his father's death and claimed Darius
was but a vulgar usurper, who planned to take Macedonia. He agreed to return
the prisoners without ransom, but told Darius that he and Alexander were not
equals, and that Darius was to henceforth address Alexander as "King of
all Asia". Darius was also curtly informed that, if he wanted to dispute
Alexander's claim to the Achaemenid throne, that he would have to stand and
fight, and that if he instead fled, Alexander would pursue and kill him. By
this, Alexander revealed for the first time that his plan was to conquer the
entire Persian Empire.[citation needed] Siege of Tyre A naval action during the
siege, Drawing by André Castaigne The Siege of Tyre occurred in 332 BC
when Alexander set out to conquer Tyre, a strategic coastal base. Tyre was the
site of the only remaining Persian port that did not capitulate to Alexander.
Even by this point in the war, the Persian navy still posed a major threat to
Alexander. Tyre, the largest and most important city-state of Phoenicia, was
located both on the Mediterranean coast as well as a nearby Island with two
natural harbors on the landward side. At the time of the siege, the city held
approximately 40,000 people, though the women and children were evacuated to
Carthage, an ancient Phoenician colony.[citation needed] Alexander sent an
envoy to Tyre, proposing a peace treaty, and asked to visit their city and
offer sacrifices to their God Melqart. The Tyrians politely told Alexander that
their town was neutral in the war, and that allowing him to offer sacrifices to
Melqart would be tantamount to recognizing him as their king. Alexander
considered building a causeway that would allow his army to take the town by
force. His engineers didn't believe it would be possible to successfully build
such a massive structure, and so Alexander sent peace envoys once more to
propose an alliance. The Tyrians believed this to be a sign of weakness, and so
they killed the envoys and threw their bodies over the city wall. The dissent
against Alexander's plans to take the city by force disappeared, and his
engineers began to design the structure. Alexander began with an engineering
feat that shows the true extent of his brilliance; as he could not attack the
city from sea, he built a kilometer-long causeway stretching out to the island
on a natural land bridge no more than two meters deep.[18] Alexander then
constructed two towers 150 feet high and moved them to the end of the causeway.
The Tyrians, however, quickly devised a counterattack. They used an old horse
transport ship, filling it with dried branches, pitch, sulfur, and various
other combustibles. They then lit it on fire, creating what we might call a
primitive form of napalm, and ran it up onto the causeway. The fire spread
quickly, engulfing both towers and other siege equipment that had been brought
up.[citation needed] This convinced Alexander that he would be unable to take
Tyre without a navy. Fate would soon provide him with one. Presently, the
Persian navy returned to find their home cities under Alexander's control.
Since their allegiance was to their city, they were therefore Alexander's. He
now had eighty ships. This coincided with the arrival of another hundred and
twenty from Cyprus, which had heard of his victories and wished to join him.
Alexander then sailed on Tyre and quickly blockaded both ports with his
superior numbers. He had several of the slower galleys, and a few barges, refit
with battering rams, the only known case of battering rams being used on ships.
Alexander started testing the wall at various points with his rams, until he
made a small breach in the south end of the island. He then coordinated an
attack across the breach with a bombardment from all sides by his navy. Once
his troops forced their way into the city, they easily overtook the garrison,
and quickly captured the city. Those citizens that took shelter in the temple
of Heracles were pardoned by Alexander. It is said that Alexander was so
enraged at the Tyrians' defense and the loss of his men that he destroyed half
the city. Alexander granted pardon to the king and his family, whilst 30,000
residents and foreigners taken were sold into slavery. There was a family,
though, that Alexander gave a very high position in his government, but the
only contact he ever had with them was when he spent the night with the wife of
the household.[citation needed]
Egypt Siege of Gaza Main article: Siege of Gaza The stronghold at Gaza was
built on a hill and was heavily fortified.[19] The inhabitants of Gaza and
their Nabataean allies did not want to lose the lucrative trade which was
controlled by Gaza.[19] Alexander Mosaic, showing Battle of Issus, from the
House of the Faun, Pompeii Batis, the commander of the fortress of Gaza,
refused to surrender to Alexander. Though a eunuch, Batis was physically
imposing and ruthless. After three unsuccessful assaults, the stronghold was
finally taken by force,[20] but not before Alexander received a serious
shoulder wound. When Gaza was taken, the male population was put to the sword
and the women and children were sold into slavery. According to the Roman
historian Quintus Curtius Rufus, Batis was killed by Alexander in imitation of
Achilles' treatment of the fallen Hector. A rope was forced through Batis's
ankles, probably between the ankle bone and the Achilles tendon, and Batis was
dragged alive by chariot beneath the walls of the city. Alexander, who admired
courage in his enemies and might have been inclined to show mercy to the brave
Persian general, was infuriated at Batis's refusal to kneel and by the enemy
commander's haughty silence and contemptuous manner. With Gaza taken, Alexander
marched into Egypt. The Egyptians hated the Persians, in part because Persia
considered Egypt as nothing more than a breadbasket.[citation needed] They
welcomed Alexander as their king, placed him on the throne of the Pharaohs,
giving him the crown of Upper and Lower Egypt, and named him the incarnation of
Ra and Osiris. He set in motion plans to build Alexandria, and, though future
tax revenues would be channeled to him, he left Egypt under the management of
Egyptians, which helped to win him their support.[citation needed]
Mesopotamia Battle of Gaugamela The Battle of Gaugamela took place in 331 BC in
what is now Iraqi Kurdistan, possibly near Dohuk,[21][22] and resulted in a
decisive victory for the Macedonians. After the Siege of Gaza, Alexander
advanced from Syria towards the heart of the Persian empire, crossing both the
Euphrates and the Tigris rivers without any opposition. Darius was building up
a massive army, drawing men from the far reaches of his empire, and planned to
use sheer numbers to crush Alexander. Though Alexander had conquered part of
the Persian empire, it was still vast in area and in manpower reserves, and
Darius could recruit more men than Alexander could dream of. Also present in
the Persian army, a sign that the Persians were still very powerful, were the
feared war elephants. While Darius had a significant advantage in number of
soldiers, most of his troops weren't as organized as Alexander's.[citation
needed] Alexander's decisive attack The battle began with the Persians already
present at the battlefield. Darius had recruited the finest cavalry from his
eastern satrapies. Darius placed himself in the center with his best infantry
as was the tradition among Persian kings. The Macedonians were divided into
two, with the right side of the army falling under the direct command of
Alexander, and the left to Parmenion. Alexander began by ordering his infantry
to march in phalanx formation towards the center of the enemy line. Darius now
launched his chariots, which were intercepted by the Agrianians, and quickly
rendered useless. Alexander, while leading the charge, formed his units into a
giant wedge, which quickly smashed right into the weakened Persian center.
Darius' charioteer was killed by a spear, and chaos rang out as everyone
(incorrectly) thought it was Darius who had been killed. The Persian line then
collapsed, and Darius fled. Darius escaped with a small core of his forces
remaining intact, although the Bactrian cavalry and Bessus soon caught up with
him. The remaining Persian resistance was quickly put down. In all, the Battle
of Gaugamela was a disastrous defeat for the Persians, and possibly one of
Alexander's finest victories.[citation needed]
Bactria Alexander's first victory over Darius, the Persian king depicted in
medieval European style in the 15th century romance The History of
Alexander’s Battles After the battle, Parmenion rounded up the Persian
baggage train while Alexander and his own bodyguard chased after Darius in
hopes of catching up. Substantial amounts of loot were gained following the
battle, with 4,000 talents captured, as well as the King's personal chariot and
bow. Darius planned to head further east, and raise another army to face
Alexander while he and the Macedonians headed to one of the Persian capitals,
Babylon, and then to another, Susa. There, Alexander found wealth that even he
had never imagined possible. He paid his troops, and sent a sum of money six
times the annual income of Athens to Greece, in order to put down a Spartan
rebellion. Darius, meanwhile, dispatched letters to his eastern satrapies
asking them to remain loyal. The satrapies, however, had other intentions, and
quickly capitulated to Alexander.[citation needed] Bessus fatally stabbed
Darius, before fleeing eastwards. Darius was found by one of Alexander's
scouts, moaning in pain. Darius, dying and chained to a baggage train being
pulled by an ox, was lying next to a lone dog and royal robes covered in blood.
He asked for water, and then, clutching the Macedonian soldier's hand, said
that he was thankful that he would not die utterly alone and abandoned.
Alexander, who may have felt genuinely saddened at Darius' death, buried Darius
next to his Achaemenid predecessors in a full military funeral. Alexander
claimed that, while dying, Darius had named Alexander as his successor to the
Achaemenid throne and had asked Alexander to avenge his death, a striking irony
since it was Alexander who had pursued him to his death. The Achaemenid Persian
Empire is considered to have fallen with the death of Darius.[citation needed]
Alexander, viewing himself as the legitimate Achaemenid successor to Darius,
viewed Bessus as a usurper to the Achaemenid throne, and eventually found and
executed this 'usurper'. The majority of the existing satraps were to give
their loyalty to Alexander, and be allowed to keep their positions. Alexander's
troops now thought the war was over. Alexander was unsure how to deal with
this, so he decided to scare them into submission. He gave a speech, arguing
that their conquests were not secure, that the Persians did not want the Greeks
to remain in their country, and that only the strength of Macedon could secure
the country. The speech worked, and Alexander's troops agreed to remain with
him. Alexander, now the Persian "King of Kings", adopted Persian
dress and mannerisms, which, in time, the Greeks began to view as decadent and
autocratic. They began to fear that Alexander, the king they had
hero-worshiped, was turning into an eastern despot, although a young eunuch was
eventually introduced to Alexander, and helped to keep his decadence in
check.[citation needed]
Battle of the Persian Gate Main article: Battle of the Persian Gate Map of the
Persian Gate In the winter of 330 BC, at the Battle of the Persian Gate
northeast of today's Yasuj in Iran, the Persian satrap Ariobarzanes led a last
stand of the Persian forces.[23][24] After the Battle of Gaugamela in
present-day Iraqi Kurdistan, Alexander had advanced to Babylon and Susa. A
Royal Road connected Susa with the more eastern capitals of Persepolis and
Pasargadae in Persis (the Persian Empire had several "capitals"), and
was the natural venue for Alexander's continued campaign. After the conquest of
Susa, Alexander split the Macedonian army into two parts. Alexander's general,
Parmenion, took one half along the Royal Road, and Alexander himself took the
route towards Persis. Passing into Persis required traversing the Persian
Gates, a narrow mountain pass that lent itself easily to ambush.[25] Believing
that, after his victory over the Uxians, he would not encounter any more enemy
forces during his march, Alexander neglected to send scouts ahead of his
vanguard, and thus walked into Ariobarzanes' ambush. Once the Macedonian army
had advanced sufficiently into the narrow pass, the Persians rained down
boulders on them from the northern slopes. From the southern slope, Persian
archers and catapults launched their projectiles. Alexander's army initially
suffered heavy casualties, losing entire platoons at a time.[26] Ariobarzanes
had hoped that defeating Alexander at the Persian Gates would allow the
Persians more time to field another army, and possibly stop the Macedonian
invasion altogether. Ariobarzanes held the pass for a month,[27] but Alexander
succeeded in encircling the Persian army and broke through the Persian
defenses. The defeat of Ariobarzanes's forces at the Persian Gate removed the
last military obstacle between Alexander and Persepolis. Upon his arrival at
the city of Persepolis, Alexander appointed a general named Phrasaortes as
successor of Ariobarzanes. Four months later, Alexander allowed the troops to
loot Persepolis. A fire broke out and spread to the rest of the city. It is not
clear if it had been a drunken accident, or a deliberate act of revenge for the
burning of the Acropolis of Athens during the Second Greco-Persian War.[28]
Siege of the Sogdian Rock After Alexander defeated the last of the Achaemenid
Empire's forces in 328 BC, he began a new campaign against the various Indian
kings in 327 BC. He wanted to conquer the entire known world, which in
Alexander's day, ended on the eastern end of India. Greeks of Alexander's day
knew nothing of China, or any other lands east of India. The Siege of the
Sogdian Rock, a fortress located north of Bactria in Sogdiana, occurred in 327
BC. Oxyartes of Bactria had sent his wife and daughters, one of whom was
Roxana, to take refuge in the fortress, as it was thought to be impregnable,
and was provisioned for a long siege. When Alexander asked the defenders to
surrender, they refused, telling him that he would need "men with
wings" to capture it. Alexander asked for volunteers, whom he would reward
if they could climb the cliffs under the fortress. There were some 300 men who
from previous sieges had gained experience in rock-climbing. Using tent-pegs
and strong flaxen lines, they climbed the cliff face at night, losing about 30
of their number during the ascent. In accordance with Alexander's orders, they
signaled their success to the troops below by waving bits of linen, and
Alexander sent a herald to shout the news to the enemy's advanced posts that
they might now surrender without further delay. The defenders were so surprised
and demoralized by this that they surrendered. Alexander fell in love with
Roxana, whom ancient historians call the "most beautiful woman in the
world" (not an uncommon claim for an ancient queen) on sight and
eventually married her. The story of the siege is told by the Roman historian
Arrian of Nicomedia, in Anabasis (section 4.18.4–19.6).[citation needed]
Indian (Modern History) Campaign Main articles: Indian campaign of Alexander
the Great and Battle of the Hydaspes Campaigns and landmarks of Alexander's
invasion of the Indian subcontinent After the death of Spitamenes and his
marriage to Roxana (Roshanak in Bactrian) to cement his relations with his new
Central Asian satrapies, Alexander was finally free to turn his attention to
the Indian subcontinent. Alexander invited all the chieftains of the former
satrapy of Gandhara, in the north of what is now Jhelum River, Pakistani region
(Mordern History) to come to him and submit to his authority. Omphis, ruler of
Taxila, whose kingdom extended from the Indus to the Hydaspes, complied, but
the chieftains of some hill clans, including the Aspasioi and Assakenoi
sections of the Kambojas (known in Indian texts also as Ashvayanas and
Ashvakayanas), refused to submit. In the winter of 327/326 BC, Alexander
personally led a campaign against these clans; the Aspasioi of Kunar valley,
the Guraeans of the Guraeus valley, and the Assakenoi of the Swat and Buner
valleys.[29] A fierce contest ensued with the Aspasioi in which Alexander
himself was wounded in the shoulder by a dart but eventually the Aspasioi lost
the fight. Alexander then faced the Assakenoi, who fought bravely and offered
stubborn resistance to Alexander in the strongholds of Massaga, Ora and Aornos.
The fort of Massaga could only be reduced after several days of bloody fighting
in which Alexander himself was wounded seriously in the ankle. According to
Curtius, "Not only did Alexander slaughter the entire population of
Massaga, but also did he reduce its buildings to rubbles".[30] A similar
slaughter then followed at Ora, another stronghold of the Assakenoi. In the
aftermath of Massaga and Ora, numerous Assakenians fled to the fortress of
Aornos. Alexander followed close behind their heels and captured the strategic
hill-fort after the fourth day of a bloody fight. This fight was the challenge
Alexander was looking for, an army with huge elephants that were almost able to
defeat Alexander. A painting by Charles Le Brun depicting Alexander and Porus
(Puru) during the Battle of the Hydaspes. After gaining control of the former
Achaemenid satrapy of Gandhara, including the city of Taxila, Alexander
advanced into Punjab, where he engaged in battle against the regional king
Porus, whom Alexander defeated in the Battle of the Hydaspes in 326 BC,[31][32]
but was so impressed by the demeanor with which the king carried himself that
he allowed Porus to continue governing his own kingdom as a satrap.[33]
Although victorious, Battle of the Hydaspes was also the most costly battle
fought by the Macedonians.[34] East of Porus' kingdom, near the Ganges River,
was the powerful Nanda Empire of Magadha and Gangaridai Empire of Bengal.
According to the Greek sources, the Nanda army was five times larger than the
Macedonian army.[35] Fearing the prospects of facing the powerful Nanda Empire
armies and exhausted by years of campaigning, his army mutinied at the Hyphasis
River, refusing to march further east. This river thus marks the easternmost
extent of Alexander's conquests. As for the Macedonians, however, their
struggle with Porus blunted their courage and stayed their further advance into
India. For having done all they could do to repulse an enemy who mustered only
twenty thousand infantry and two thousand horse, they violently opposed
Alexander when he insisted on crossing the river Ganges also, the width of
which, as they learned, was thirty-two furlongs, its depth a hundred fathoms,
while its banks on the further side were covered with multitudes of men-at-arms
and horsemen and elephants. For they were told that the kings of the Ganderites
and Praesii were awaiting them with eighty thousand horsemen, two hundred
thousand footmen, eight thousand chariots, and six thousand fighting
elephants.[36]
Alexander spoke to his army and tried to persuade them to march further into
India but Coenus pleaded with him to change his opinion and return, the men, he
said, "longed to again see their parents, their wives and children, their
homeland". Alexander, seeing the unwillingness of his men agreed and
diverted. Along the way his army conquered the Malli clans (in modern-day
Multan). In the territory of the Indus, he nominated his officer Peithon as a
satrap, a position he would hold for the next ten years until 316 BC, and in
the Punjab he left Eudemus in charge of the army, at the side of the satrap
Porus and Taxiles. Eudemus became ruler of a part of the Punjab after their
death. Both rulers returned to the West in 316 BC with their armies. In 321 BC,
Chandragupta Maurya founded the Maurya Empire in India and overthrew the Greek
satraps. Return from India Alexander now sent much of his army to Carmania
(modern southern Iran) with his general Craterus, and commissioned a fleet to
explore the Persian Gulf shore under his admiral Nearchus, while he led the
rest of his forces back to Persia by the southern route through the Gedrosian
Desert (now part of southern Iran and Makran now part of Pakistan). According
to Plutarch, during the 60-day march through the desert, Alexander lost
three-quarters of his army to the harsh desert conditions along the way.[37]
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