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Ebla (Sumerian: ???? eb2-la,[1] Arabic: ????,
modern: ?? ?????, Tell Mardikh) was one of the earliest kingdoms in Syria. Its
remains constitute a tell located about 55 km (34 mi) southwest of Aleppo near
the village of Mardikh. Ebla was an important center throughout the 3rd
millennium BC and in the first half of the 2nd millennium BC. Its discovery
proved the Levant was a center of ancient, centralized civilization equal to
Egypt and Mesopotamia and ruled out the view that the latter two were the only
important centers in the Near East during the Early Bronze Age. The first
Eblaite kingdom has been described as the first recorded world power. Starting
as a small settlement in the Early Bronze Age (c.?3500 BC), Ebla developed into
a trading empire and later into an expansionist power that imposed its hegemony
over much of northern and eastern Syria. Ebla was destroyed during the 23rd
century BC. It was then rebuilt and was mentioned in the records of the Third
Dynasty of Ur. The second Ebla was a continuation of the first, ruled by a new
royal dynasty. It was destroyed at the end of the 3rd millennium BC, which
paved the way for the Amorite tribes to settle in the city, forming the third
Ebla. The third kingdom also flourished as a trade center; it became a subject
and an ally of Yamhad (modern-day Aleppo) until its final destruction by the
Hittite king Mursili I in c.?1600 BC. Ebla maintained its prosperity through a
vast trading network. Artifacts from Sumer, Cyprus, Egypt and as far as
Afghanistan were recovered from the city's palaces. The kingdom had its own
language, Eblaite, and the political organization of Ebla had features
different from the Sumerian model. Women enjoyed a special status, and the
queen had major influence in the state and religious affairs. The pantheon of
gods was mainly north Semitic and included deities exclusive to Ebla. The city
was excavated from 1964 and became famous for the Ebla tablets, an archive of
about 20,000 cuneiform tablets found there, dated to around 2350 BC.[note 1]
Written in both Sumerian and Eblaite and using the cuneiform, the archive has
allowed a better understanding of the Sumerian language and provided important
information over the political organization and social customs of the mid-3rd
millennium BC's Levant.
History:
A possible meaning of the word "Ebla" is "white rock",
referring to the limestone outcrop on which the city was built.[2][3] Ebla was
first settled around 3500 BC;[4][5] its growth was supported by many satellite
agricultural settlements.[4] The city benefited from its role as an
entrepôt of growing international trade, which probably began with an
increased demand for wool in Sumer.[4] Archaeologists designate this early
habitation period "Mardikh I"; it ended around 3000 BC.[6] Mardikh I
is followed by the first and second kingdoms era between about 3000 and 2000
BC, designated "Mardikh II".[7] I. J. Gelb considered Ebla as part of
the Kish civilization, which was a cultural entity of East Semitic-speaking
populations that stretched from the center of Mesopotamia to the western
Levant.[8]
First kingdom:
First Eblaite Kingdom Ebla c.?3000 BC–c.?2300 BC The first kingdom at its
greatest extent, including vassals The first kingdom at its greatest extent,
including vassals Capital Ebla Common languages Palaeo-Syrian Religion Ancient
Levantine religion.[9] Government Monarchy Historical era Bronze Age •
Established c.?3000 BC • Disestablished c.?2300 BC Succeeded by The second
kingdom of Mari Second Mariote kingdom Today part of Syria Lebanon Turkey
During the first kingdom period between about 3000 and 2300 BC, Ebla was the
most prominent kingdom among the Syrian states, especially during the second
half of the 3rd millennium BC, which is known as "the age of the
archives" after the Ebla tablets.
Early period:
The early period between 3000 and 2400 BC is designated "Mardikh
IIA".[7][10] General knowledge about the city's history prior to the
written archives is obtained through excavations.[11] The first stages of
Mardikh IIA is identified with building "CC",[12] and structures that
form a part of building "G2",[13] which was apparently a royal palace
built c.?2700 BC. Toward the end of this period, a hundred years' war with Mari
started.[15][16] Mari gained the upper hand through the actions of its king
Sa?umu, who conquered many of Ebla's cities.[17] In the mid-25th century BC,
king Kun-Damu defeated Mari, but the state's power declined following his
reign.[note 2][18]
Archive period :
Royal palace "G" The archive period, which is designated
"Mardikh IIB1", lasted from c.?2400 BC until c.?2300 BC.[7] The end
of the period is known as the "first destruction",[19] mainly
referring to the destruction of the royal palace (called palace "G"
and built over the earlier "G2"),[20] and much of the acropolis.[21]
During the archive period, Ebla had political and military dominance over the
other Syrian city-states of northern and eastern Syria, which are mentioned in
the archives.[22] Most of the tablets, which date from that period, are about
economic matters but also include royal letters and diplomatic documents.[23]
The written archives do not date from before Igrish-Halam's reign,[24] which
saw Ebla paying tribute to Mari,[25] and an extensive invasion of Eblaite
cities in the middle Euphrates region led by the Mariote king Iblul-Il.[26][27]
Ebla recovered under King Irkab-Damu in about 2340 BC; becoming prosperous and
launching a successful counter-offensive against Mari.[28][29] Irkab-Damu
concluded a peace and trading treaty with Abarsal;[note 3][30] it is one of the
earliest-recorded treaties in history.[31]
At its greatest extent, Ebla controlled an area roughly half the size of modern
Syria,[32] from Ursa'um in the north,[33] to the area around Damascus in the
south,[34] and from Phoenicia and the coastal mountains in the west,[35][36] to
Haddu in the east.[30][37] Large parts of the kingdom were under the direct
control of the king and was administered by governors; the rest consisted of
vassal kingdoms.[32] One of the most important of these vassals was Armi,[38]
which is the city most often mentioned in the Ebla tablets.
Archive period Royal palace "G" The archive period, which is
designated "Mardikh IIB1", lasted from c.?2400 BC until c.?2300
BC.[7] The end of the period is known as the "first destruction",[19]
mainly referring to the destruction of the royal palace (called palace
"G" and built over the earlier "G2"),[20] and much of the
acropolis.[21] During the archive period, Ebla had political and military
dominance over the other Syrian city-states of northern and eastern Syria,
which are mentioned in the archives.[22] Most of the tablets, which date from
that period, are about economic matters but also include royal letters and
diplomatic documents.[23] The written archives do not date from before
Igrish-Halam's reign,[24] which saw Ebla paying tribute to Mari,[25] and an
extensive invasion of Eblaite cities in the middle Euphrates region led by the
Mariote king Iblul-Il.[26][27] Ebla recovered under King Irkab-Damu in about
2340 BC; becoming prosperous and launching a successful counter-offensive
against Mari.[28][29] Irkab-Damu concluded a peace and trading treaty with
Abarsal;[note 3][30] it is one of the earliest-recorded treaties in
history.[31] At its greatest extent, Ebla controlled an area roughly half the
size of modern Syria,[32] from Ursa'um in the north,[33] to the area around
Damascus in the south,[34] and from Phoenicia and the coastal mountains in the
west,[35][36] to Haddu in the east.[30][37] Large parts of the kingdom were
under the direct control of the king and was administered by governors; the
rest consisted of vassal kingdoms.[32] One of the most important of these
vassals was Armi,[38] which is the city most often mentioned in the Ebla
tablets.[39] Ebla had more than sixty vassal kingdoms and city-states,[40]
including Hazuwan, Burman, Emar, Halabitu and Salbatu.[29][37][41] The vizier
was the king's chief official.[42] The holder of the office possessed great
authority; the most powerful vizier was Ibrium, who campaigned against Abarsal
during the term of his predecessor Arrukum.[43] During the reign of Isar-Damu,
Ebla continued the war against Mari, which defeated Ebla's ally Nagar, blocking
trade routes between Ebla and southern Mesopotamia via upper Mesopotamia.[25]
Ebla conducted regular military campaigns against rebellious vassals,[43]
including several attacks on Armi,[44][45][39] and a campaign against the
southern region of Ib'al – close to Qatna.[43][46] In order to settle the
war with Mari, Isar-Damu allied with Nagar and Kish.[47] The campaign was
headed by the Eblaite vizier Ibbi-Sipish, who led the combined armies to
victory in a battle near Terqa.[43] The alliance also attacked Armi and
occupied it, leaving Ibbi-Sipish's son Enzi-Malik as governor.[39] Ebla
suffered its first destruction a few years after the campaign,[48] probably
following Isar-Damu's death.[49] Ebla had more than sixty vassal kingdoms and
city-states,[40] including Hazuwan, Burman, Emar, Halabitu and
Salbatu.[29][37][41] The vizier was the king's chief official.[42] The holder
of the office possessed great authority; the most powerful vizier was Ibrium,
who campaigned against Abarsal during the term of his predecessor Arrukum.[43]
During the reign of Isar-Damu, Ebla continued the war against Mari, which
defeated Ebla's ally Nagar, blocking trade routes between Ebla and southern
Mesopotamia via upper Mesopotamia.[25] Ebla conducted regular military
campaigns against rebellious vassals,[43] including several attacks on
Armi,[44][45][39] and a campaign against the southern region of Ib'al –
close to Qatna.[43][46] In order to settle the war with Mari, Isar-Damu allied
with Nagar and Kish.[47] The campaign was headed by the Eblaite vizier
Ibbi-Sipish, who led the combined armies to victory in a battle near Terqa.[43]
The alliance also attacked Armi and occupied it, leaving Ibbi-Sipish's son
Enzi-Malik as governor.[39] Ebla suffered its first destruction a few years
after the campaign,[48] probably following Isar-Damu's death.[49]
First destruction of Ebla:
The first destruction occurred c.?2300 BC; palace "G" was burned,
baking the clay tablets of the royal archives and preserving them. Many
theories about the cause and the perpetrator have been posited: High (early)
dating hypothesis: Giovanni Pettinato supports an early dating for Ebla that
would put the destruction at around 2500 BC. Pettinato, while preferring the
date of 2500 BC, later accepted the event could have happened in 2400 BC. The
scholar suggests the city was destroyed in 2400 BC by a Mesopotamian such as
Eannatum of Lagash – who boasted of taking tribute from Mari – or
Lugalzagesi of Umma, who claimed to have reached the Mediterranean.] Akkadian
hypothesis: Both kings Sargon of Akkad and his grandson Naram-Sin claimed to
have destroyed a town called Ibla,[55] The discoverer of Ebla, Paolo Matthiae,
considers Sargon a more likely culprit; his view is supported by Trevor
Bryce,[58] but rejected by Michael Astour.
The conquest of Armanum and Ebla on the Mediterranean coast by Naram-Sin is
mentioned in several of his inscriptions:[63] "Whereas, for all time since
the creation of mankind, no king whosoever had destroyed Armanum and Ebla, the
god Nergal, by means of (his) weapons opened the way for Naram-Sin, the mighty,
and gave him Armanum and Ebla. Further, he gave to him the Amanus, the Cedar
Mountain, and the Upper Sea. By means of the weapons of the god Dagan, who
magnifies his kingship, Naram-Sin, the mighty, conquered Armanum and
Ebla." —?Inscription of Naram-Sin. E 2.1.4.26[63] Mari's revenge:
According to Alfonso Archi and Maria Biga, the destruction happened
approximately three or four years after the battle of Terqa.[48] Archi and Biga
say the destruction was caused by Mari[48] in retaliation for its humiliating
defeat at Terqa.[64] This view is supported by Mario Liverani.[43] Archi says
the Mariote king Isqi-Mari destroyed Ebla before ascending the throne of his
city.[65] Natural catastrophe: Astour says a natural catastrophe caused the
blaze which ended the archive period. He says the destruction was limited to
the area of the royal palace and there is no convincing evidence of
looting.[21] He dates the fire to c.?2290 BC (Middle Chronology).
Second kingdom:
Second Eblaite Kingdom Ebla c.?2300 BC–c.?2000 BC:
Approximate borders of the second kingdom Approximate borders of the second
kingdom Capital Ebla Common languages Palaeo-Syrian Government Monarchy
Historical era Bronze Age • Established c.?2300 BC • Disestablished
c.?2000 BC The second kingdom's period is designated "Mardikh IIB2",
and spans the period between 2300 and 2000 BC.[19]
The second kingdom lasted until Ebla's second destruction, which occurred
anytime between 2050 and 1950 BC, with the 2000 BC dating being a mere formal
date.[67][68] The Akkadians under Sargon of Akkad and his descendant Naram-Sin
invaded the northern borders of Ebla aiming for the forests of the Amanus
Mountain; the intrusions were separated by roughly 90 years and the areas
attacked were not attached to Akkad.[16] Archi accept that the Ibla mentioned
in the annals of Sargon and Naram-Sin is the Syrian Ebla but do not consider
them responsible for the destruction which ended the Archive period.[69] By the
time of Naram-Sin, Armi was the hegemonic city in northern Syria and was
destroyed by the Akkadian king.[70] Palace "P5"
A new local dynasty ruled the second kingdom of Ebla,[58] but there was
continuity with its first kingdom heritage.[71] Ebla maintained its earliest
features, including its architectural style and the sanctity of the first
kingdom's religious sites.[72] A new royal palace was built in the lower
town,[73] and the transition from the archive period is marked only by the
destruction of palace "G".[21] Little is known about the second
kingdom because no written material have been discovered aside from one
inscription dating to the end of the period.[73] The second kingdom was
attested to in contemporaneous sources; in an inscription, Gudea of Lagash
asked for cedars to be brought from Urshu in the mountains of Ebla, indicating
Ebla's territory included Urshu north of Carchemish in modern-day Turkey.[74]
Texts that dates to the seventh year of Amar-Sin (c.?2040 BC),[note 9] a ruler
of the Ur III empire, mention a messenger of the Ensí
("Megum") of Ebla.[note 10][note 11][81] The second kingdom was
considered a vassal by the Ur III government,[82] but the nature of the
relation is unknown and it included the payment of tribute.[83] A formal
recognition of Ur's overlordship appears to be a condition for the right of
trade with that empire.[33]
The second kingdom disintegrated toward the end of the 21st century BC,[33] and
ended with the destruction of the city by fire, although evidence for the event
has only been found outside of the so-called "Temple of the Rock",
and in the area around palace "E" on the acropolis.[72] The reason
for the destruction is not known;[72] according to Astour, it could have been
the result of a Hurrian invasion c.?2030 BC,[84] led by the former Eblaite
vassal city of Ikinkalis.[note 12][86] The destruction of Ebla is mentioned in
the fragmentary Hurro-Hittite legendary epic "Song of Release"
discovered in 1983,[87] which Astour considers as describing the destruction of
the second kingdom.[88] In the epic, an Eblaite assembly led by a man called
"Zazalla" prevents king Meki from showing mercy to prisoners from
Ebla's former vassal Ikinkalis,[85] provoking the wrath of the Hurrian storm
god Teshub and causing him to destroy the city.
Third kingdom :
Third Eblaite Kingdom Ebla c.?2000 BC–c.?1600 BC:
Capital Ebla
In period "A", Ebla was quickly rebuilt as a planned city.[91] The
foundations covered the remains of Mardikh II; new palaces and temples were
built, and new fortifications were built in two circles – one for the low
city and one for the acropolis.[91] The city was laid out on regular lines and
large public buildings were built.[92][93] Further construction took place in
period "B".[92] The vizier palace The first known king of the third
kingdom is Ibbit-Lim,[94] who described himself as the Mekim of Ebla.[note
13][78] A basalt votive statue bearing Ibbit-Lim's inscription was discovered
in 1968; this helped to identify the site of Tell-Mardikh with the ancient
kingdom Ebla.[78][94] The name of the king is Amorite in the view of Pettinato;
it is therefore probable the inhabitants of third kingdom Ebla were
predominantly Amorites, as were most of the inhabitants of Syria at that
time.[96] By the beginning of the 18th century BC, Ebla had become a vassal of
Yamhad, an Amorite kingdom centered in Aleppo.[97][98] Written records are not
available for this period, but the city was still a vassal during Yarim-Lim III
of Yamhad's reign.[92] One of the known rulers of Ebla during this period was
Immeya, who received gifts from the Egyptian Pharaoh Hotepibre, indicating the
continuing wide connections and importance of Ebla.[99] The city was mentioned
in tablets from the Yamhadite vassal city of Alalakh in modern-day Turkey; an
Eblaite princess married a son of King Ammitaqum of Alalakh, who belonged to a
branch of the royal Yamhadite dynasty.[100][101] Ebla was destroyed by the
Hittite King Mursili I in about 1600 BC.[102] Indilimma was probably the last
king of Ebla;[103] a seal of his crown prince Maratewari was discovered in the
western palace "Q".[103][104] Alternatively, Maratewari could well be
the last king according to Archi,[105] who also argued that the "Song of
Release" epic describes the destruction of the third kingdom and preserves
older elements.
Economy:
During the first kingdom period, the palace controlled the economy, but wealthy
families managed their financial affairs without government intervention.
The economic system was redistributive; the palace distributed food to its
permanent and seasonal workers. It is estimated that around 40,000 persons
contributed to this system, but in general, and unlike in Mesopotamia, land
stayed in the hands of villages, which paid an annual share to the palace.
Agriculture was mainly pastoral; large herds of cattle were managed by the
palace. The city's inhabitants owned around 140,000 head of sheep and goats,
and 9,000 cattle. Ebla derived its prosperity from trade; its wealth was equal
to that of the most important Sumerian cities, and its main commercial rival
was Mari. Ebla's main articles of trade were probably timber from the nearby
mountains, and textiles. Handicrafts also appear to have been a major export,
evidenced by the quantity of artifacts recovered from the palaces of the city.
Ebla possessed a wide commercial network reaching as far as modern-day
Afghanistan. It shipped textiles to Cyprus, possibly through the port of
Ugarit, but most of its trade seems to have been directed by river-boat towards
Mesopotamia – chiefly Kish. The main palace G was found to contain
artifacts dating from Ancient Egypt bearing the names of the pharaohs Khafre
and Pepi I. Ebla continued to be a center of trade during the second kingdom,
evidenced by the surrounding cities that appeared during its period and were
destroyed along with the city. Trade continued to be Ebla's main economic
activity during the third kingdom; archaeological finds show there was an
extensive exchange with Egypt and coastal Syrian cities such as Byblos.
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